Book Review Series: 'Messiah ben Joseph' - Detailed Review: Chapter Four and Five
Chapter Four - Messiah ben Joseph in the Psalms
The Book of Psalms is a collection of ancient songs from Israel's kingdom days, celebrating the ETERNAL and extolling the Judahite monarchs of the early first millennium BC. These psalms provide insights into the royal ideologies of Israel's early monarchy. They also serve as prophetic texts pointing to the Messiah, a role attributed to them through the work of a redactor around 500 BC. This individual compiled the Psalms into a unified collection to direct readers' hopes towards a future king of Israel, the Messiah. As a result, the Psalms have been read as messianic prophecies for the past two and a half millennia by both Jews and Christians, similar to books like Isaiah, Daniel, and Zechariah.
The concept of "redactor intent" allows for dual readings of the Psalms. Historically, they can be seen as eulogizing historical kings like David or Solomon, describing them in ultimate and universal terms as the 'mashiah of the ETERNAL.' Alternatively, the Psalms can be read as pointing to a future Messiah. The redactor’s inclusion of these psalms in the collection gave them a new messianic meaning, justifying both historical and prophetic interpretations.
In the past, scholars noted a 'meta-narrative' in the sequence of the Psalms but found its meaning elusive. However, closer examination suggests that the redactor modeled the collection on the eschatological program of the prophets, especially Zechariah. This narrative includes themes such as a Bridegroom-king coming to Zion (Psalm 45), the gathering of Israel (Psalm 50), a temporary messianic kingdom (Psalm 72), hostile nations against Jerusalem (Psalms 83-86), the Messiah's suffering (Psalms 88-89), Israel's exile and return (Psalms 90-106), deliverance by a heavenly hero (Psalm 110), and a celebration of Sukkot in Jerusalem (Psalms 120-134).
A noteworthy aspect of this narrative is its references to Joseph, which is surprising given that the redactor was a Judahite and Joseph’s descendants were former enemies of Judah. Despite this, the Psalms present Joseph as a great savior whose sufferings prefigured the Exodus and hinted at a greater deliverance to come (Psalms 105:16-45; 106:47-48). These Joseph psalms are concentrated in the middle of the Book of Psalms, highlighting his unexpected yet significant role in the redactor's eschatological vision.
The Book of Psalms contains a core segment focused on Josephite references, starting from Psalm 60, where territories such as Gilead, Manasseh, Ephraim, Shechem, and the Vale of Succoth are mentioned. God promises restoration to Ephraim alongside Judah: "Gilead is mine, Manasseh is mine; Ephraim is my helmet, Judah my sceptre" (Psalm 60:7-8). This theme concludes with Psalm 108, which repeats the final seven verses of Psalm 60, forming an inclusio that emphasizes Ephraim and Joseph. Within this inclusio, all references to Ephraim (60:7; 78:9, 67; 80:2; 108:8) and Joseph (77:15; 78:67; 80:1; 81:5; 105:17) are contained, culminating in a retelling of Joseph's story and the Exodus, symbolizing future deliverance.
This Josephite inclusio encompasses the Psalms of Asaph (many songs attributed to a group called the Asaphites) who had a political and cultural allegiance to the Josephite confederacy.. These songs often reflect the experiences and perspectives of the tribes descended from Joseph. Psalms 77, 78, 80, and 81 reference Joseph directly, highlighting his significance in Israel's history. For instance, Psalm 80 speaks of Joseph as a shepherd leading Israel, and Psalm 81 recounts Joseph's exaltation in Egypt (Genesis 41:45). Additionally, Asaph’s Psalms reflect on the Josephite confederacy's victories, such as those of Deborah, Barak, and Gideon.
Another group of songs in this section comes from the Sons of Korah, who were also connected to the tribes descended from Joseph. The Sons of Korah also contribute to the Josephite perspective within their psalms. These Korahites resided among the Josephite tribes, and their songs reflect themes of redemption and resurrection, derived from their ancestral experiences with Korah's rebellion (Numbers 16). For example, Psalm 42 references the Jordan's source at Dan, and Psalm 44 uses the imagery of Joseph's aurochs (Deuteronomy 33:17) to symbolize victory. The Korah Psalms culminate in Psalm 89, a lamentation over a fallen mashiah, questioning God about the broken covenant with David.
The narrative within this Josephite core points towards a messianic interpretation, intertwining historical events with prophetic hopes for redemption and resurrection. This dual reading allows for an understanding of the Psalms as both historical reflections and prophetic texts, envisioning a future deliverance through a messianic figure akin to Joseph.
The Rabbinic View
The rabbis recognize various references to Messiah ben Joseph in the Psalms, particularly within the central sections of the book. These rabbinic interpretations suggest that some Psalms speak prophetically about a future messiah, Messiah ben Joseph, who is distinct from the traditional Davidic Messiah (Messiah ben David). For example, Psalm 2 is interpreted to describe Messiah ben Joseph as a figure whom all the kings of the earth will rise against, as mentioned in Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer.
Menahem ben Ammiel ben Joseph...All the kings will rise up against him to slay him, as it is said, The kings of the earth set themselves and the rulers [take counsel together together against the ETERNAL and against his mashiah (Ps. 2.2).] (Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer 22.a.ii)
Similarly, Psalm 22 is seen as speaking of Messiah ben Joseph's suffering on behalf of the people, which aligns with the description of his trials and sacrifices.
Ephraim our righteous Messiah [Ephraim mashiah tsidkenu], although we are your ancestors, yet you are greater than we, for you bore sins on our behalf and awful sufferings...your eyes were darkened and your strength was dried up like a potsherd (Ps. 22.15). All this happened because of our sins (§37). (Pesikta Rabbati §36-37)
In Psalm 60, the mention of Ephraim and Joseph is interpreted by the rabbis to signify the role of Messiah ben Joseph in taking up kingship before the eventual rule of Messiah ben David.
In the everlasting time to come I shall deliver you through Messiah ben Ephraim and through Messiah ben David of the tribe of Judah. Ephraim also is the strength of my beginning (Pss. 60.7; 108.8): Messiah ben Ephraim will be the first to take upon himself the yoke of kingship. But Judah is my sceptre (Pss. 60.7; 108.8): Messiah ben David [will rule]. (Midrash Tehillim 60.3.)
Psalm 80 is another significant text where the rabbis see the Messiah in the imagery of a vine, with references to Joseph as a savior and leader.
The shoot that your right hand planted, and the King Messiah whom you made mighty for yourself.
Upon the man of your right hand (Ps. 80.17). This means, The stock which his right hand has planted (Ps. 80.15), by way of a metaphor; and it represents Israel or Messiah ben Ephraim.
The unique spelling of Joseph in Psalm 81, with an added "H" (YH), is taken to signify a divine endorsement of Joseph’s righteousness. Normally, Joseph is written with the Hebrew letters YVSF. But, in this psalm, the name, quite uniquely, is written with the Hebrew letter for H, that is, as YHVSF. The midrash explains that here the name of Yah (YH) has been prefixed to that of Joseph.
In the verse He appointed it (1w samo) in Yehoseph for a testimony (Ps 81.6), do not read 'he appointed it' but 'his name' (1w semo). YH, that is the name of the Holy One, blessed be he, testified that Joseph had not touched Potiphar's wife.
Additionally, the rabbis see connections to Messiah ben Joseph in Psalm 86, which speaks of divine aid and comfort through Joseph, and Psalm 87, which mentions both Messiahs, ben David and ben Joseph.
And of Zion it shall be said this man and that man were born in her. These are the Messiahs of the Lord, Messiah ben David and Messiah ben Joseph (Midr. Pss. 87§6).
Psalm 89 further reinforces this with multiple references to the Messiah who will overcome adversaries and lead Israel to victory.
Psalm 92, with its imagery of the horn of a wild ox (rem), is interpreted to describe the power and reach of Messiah ben Joseph, echoing the description in Deuteronomy 33:17.
But you exalted like a rem my horn. Just as the horns of the rem are taller than those of all beasts and animals, and it gores to its right and to its left, so with Menahem ben Ammiel ben Joseph, his horns are taller than those of all kings, and he will gore in the future towards the four corners of the heavens. And about him Moses said: The firstborn of his shor, majesty is his; and the horns of a rem are his horns. With them he shall gore the peoples, all as one, even to the ends of the earth (Deut. 33.17). (Pirqei de Rabbi Eliezer 22a)
The midrash on Psalm 92.10-11 is similar:
But you exalted like a rem my horn (Ps. 92.10). Just as the horns of the rem are high and he gores to the four corners of the earth, so Menahem ben Ammiel ben Joseph gores to the four corners of the earth. And about him Moses said: The firstborn of his shor, majesty is his; and the horns of a rem are his horns. With them he shall gore the peoples, all as one, even to the ends of the earth. And these are the ten thousands of Ephraim, and these are the thousands of Manasseh (Deut. 33.17-18). And against him will arise the kings to kill him, as it is said, The kings of the earth will arise (Ps. 2.2). And Israel in the land will be in great distress. But in their distress they will be like an olive tree, as it is said, You have anointed me with fresh oil, and my eye shall look upon my enemy, those who rise against me (Ps. 92.10-11). And Israel will behold their downfall, as it is said, And my eye shall look upon my enemy.
Finally, Psalm 110, traditionally seen as messianic, is also linked to Messiah ben Joseph, emphasizing his role in the ultimate redemption and defeat of Israel's enemies. The psalm about the heavenly conqueror Melchizedek. Here is Midrash Aleph Beth S11b.1.
Ephraim my firstborn, come, sit at my right hand until I bring down the power of the horde of Go and Magog, your enemies, beneath your footstool. As it is said, The ETERNAL said to my lord, Sit at my right hand, etc. (Ps. 110.1)19
Through these interpretations, the rabbis highlight a layered understanding of the Psalms, seeing them not only as historical or liturgical texts but also as prophetic writings that anticipate a future messianic figure from the lineage of Joseph. This understanding is confirmed by the rabbinic literature, which frequently aligns specific psalms with the attributes and roles expected of Messiah ben Joseph.
The Messiah of the Levites
Many of the Psalms focusing on Joseph and Ephraim were written or sung by Levitical groups, specifically the Asaphites and the Korahites. The Levites were one of the tribes of Israel, set apart for religious duties, and they played a crucial role in the worship practices of ancient Israel, including the singing and composition of Psalms. The Psalms written by these Levitical groups contain significant references to Ephraim and Joseph. The Book of Psalms contains many references to Joseph and Ephraim, especially in the Psalms clustered around Psalm 89, which feature a significant amount of Josephite and Ephraimite language. Rabbinic literature identifies Messiah ben Joseph in these same Psalms. This association suggests that the Levites living in the Kingdom of Ephraim, who may have favored Ephraimite messianic ideology, expressed these beliefs in their psalms.
For example, Psalm 84 includes a prayer for God's anointed one, or "mashiah," symbolized by a protective shield. Psalm 89, which is heavily messianic, refers to "mashiah" more than any other psalm and speaks of a firstborn king, a term usually reserved for Joseph, rather than David. This firstborn king is portrayed as a son of God and anointed, but he is also shown suffering, with his crown pierced.
Psalm 80, devoid of Davidic references, speaks of a king referred to as "The man of your right hand," a title reminiscent of Ephraim, who was blessed with the right hand. This Psalm envisions a king who will gather the people of Joseph.
Psalm 92, described as a song for the Sabbath, is a psalm of pure praise and joy. It features a figure with the "horn of a rem" (a wild ox) and anointed with "fresh oil." This figure is triumphant, having defeated his enemies, and is likened to a flourishing tree, symbolizing vitality and longevity. This victorious and anointed figure, bringing about a time of peace and rest, aligns with the idea of a Josephite messiah who brings in a new era of prosperity and praise, fulfilling the millennial vision of a renewed world order as hinted at in Psalm 90:4.
Thus, these Psalms, with their Josephite language and messianic themes, point towards a prophetic vision of Messiah ben Joseph, blending historical references with future messianic expectations. The Levites, through their Psalms, contributed to the theological and messianic discourse of ancient Israel. Their unique position and perspective allowed them to weave Josephite themes into their worship, highlighting the hope for a future messianic leader from the line of Joseph. This connection illustrates how the Levites' cultural and geographical context influenced their religious expressions and how they played a pivotal role in shaping the messianic expectations found in the Psalms.
The Messiah - Whose Son Is He?
The Psalms indeed feature references to a "Messiah ben Joseph," but it's a nuanced presence. Psalm 78, for example, tells of how God rejected Joseph and Ephraim in favor of Judah and David. Psalm 89 speaks of a messiah whose fall seems to breach the promise to David, yet he is described as a pierced firstborn, reminiscent of Joseph. Interestingly, rabbinic literature connects Psalm 2 with Messiah ben Joseph, despite the psalm's apparent focus on a Davidic king. This connection stems from how Psalms 1 and 2 are often viewed together, forming a two-part introduction to the Psalms that highlights both a righteous man who prospers (Psalm 1) and an anointed king who subdues nations (Psalm 2). This duality suggests a king who embodies traits of both Joseph and David. Similarly, Psalm 110, which describes a conquering messiah at God's right hand, is seen by the rabbis as referring to Messiah ben Joseph, especially given the imagery of the right hand, which recalls the blessing on Ephraim (Genesis 48:14). Thus, these psalms blend the imagery and expectations of both Josephite and Davidic messianic figures, suggesting a messiah who fulfills roles associated with both lines.
A Heavenly King
The Book of Psalms, much like the prophetic book of Zechariah, hints at a Messiah who embodies the promises made to both Judah and Joseph. Psalm 110, for example, depicts a king-priest figure similar to Melchizedek, a priest-king from the days of Abraham, potentially even identifying the Messiah directly with Melchizedek. This suggests a Messiah who is both a king like David and a priest like Melchizedek, combining royal and priestly roles in a single figure. The text points to various messianic paradigms that are echoed in other ancient Jewish texts, such as the Testament of Naphtali, the Qumran scrolls, and the Talmud, which speak of different messianic figures.
Moreover, Psalm 110 portrays a heavenly king whose nature blurs the line between divine and human. This idea is supported by the way ancient interpreters and texts like Daniel’s vision of a “son of man” and the Dead Sea Scrolls' Melchizedek character view the Messiah. Daniel's "son of man" is a heavenly figure given authority over all nations by God. Similarly, the figure in Psalm 110, depicted as sitting at God's right hand, indicates a powerful, divine-like king. The psalmist even refers to this king as "elohim," a term usually reserved for God, confirming the divine status of the king (Psalm 45:6, Hebrews 1:8).
Additionally, the unique spelling of "Joseph" as "Yehoseph" in Psalm 81:6, incorporating the divine name (YHV), suggests a blending of divine and Josephite identity, hinting at a divine aspect of the Messiah associated with Joseph. This unusual spelling has led scholars and rabbis to see a divine connotation in the name, implying a divine Messiah figure linked to Joseph. The rabbis, in their interpretations, frequently connect such references to Messiah ben Joseph, a suffering servant figure who plays a significant role in Jewish messianic expectations.
Overall, the Psalms weave together the themes of divine kingship, priesthood, and messianic suffering, creating a complex portrayal of a Messiah who fulfills the roles of both Davidic king and Josephite suffering servant, ultimately pointing to a divine figure who brings redemption and justice.
Summary of the Psalms
The concept of Messiah ben Joseph, a messianic figure from the line of Joseph, is intricately woven into the Book of Psalms. This figure is particularly highlighted within the Josephite core, which spans Psalms 60 to 108, rich with references to Joseph and Ephraim. This section, particularly in Psalms 105 and 106, celebrates Joseph as Israel's savior, portraying him as a precursor to a future redeemer, echoing the deliverance seen in the Exodus. Within this Josephite core, certain psalms, such as Psalms 1, 80, and 92, link Josephite imagery with messianic language, depicting a victorious and resurgent king, akin to Joseph's fruitful tree and the powerful rem (wild ox).
Rabbinic literature also identifies Messiah ben Joseph in these texts. Interestingly, the juxtaposition of Psalms 1 and 2 blends Josephite and Judahite messianic symbols, a theme echoed in Psalm 89. Furthermore, Psalm 81 uniquely spells Joseph's name as "Yehoseph," merging the divine Tetragrammaton with Joseph's name.
Ultimately, the Psalms present a complex messianic vision that combines elements from both the Josephite and Davidic lines, culminating in a heavenly king who embodies the promises made to both Judah and Joseph. This vision aligns with the broader prophetic tradition, notably in Zechariah, portraying a Messiah with divine and royal characteristics who will bring about the ultimate redemption.
Chapter Five - Messiah ben Joseph in the Pseudepigrapha
In the Israelite literature of Greco-Roman times, there exists a genre of prophetic and apocalyptic texts known as pseudepigrapha. These texts are written pseudonymously, meaning they are attributed to ancient sages but were actually composed much later. Significant examples of this genre include the Book of Enoch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Sibylline Oracles, the Apocalypse of Ezra, and Joseph and Aseneth. These works offer insights into the religious and cultural beliefs of their time, often incorporating themes of prophecy, divine revelation, and eschatology. They reflect the hopes, expectations, and theological concepts of the Jewish people during the periods of Greek and Roman influence, contributing to the broader understanding of early Jewish and Christian thought.
The Animal Apocalypse of Enoch
The complete text of the Book of Enoch is preserved only by the Ethiopian church and is written in Geez or Classical Ethiopic. However, it is widely recognized that the book originally derives from an Israelite source, with portions of an Aramaic text found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The book is a collection of five distinct parts, with the section called the Animal Apocalypse being the oldest, dating back to the first half of the second century BC. The Animal Apocalypse uses animal symbolism to describe the history of the world. Chapter 89 traces history from Noah through Israel's history, with various nations depicted as savage beasts attacking Israel, symbolized as sheep. Chapter 90 introduces a white bull, symbolizing the Messiah, followed by a mysterious figure called "nagar," an Ethiopic word meaning "thing" or "word." Verse 38 of this chapter exists only in Ethiopic, requiring careful interpretation. Here us a literal translation from the book:
37 And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns, and all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air feared him and made petition to him all the time. 38 And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all were/became white bulls; and the first among them was/became a nagar; the nagar was/became a great beast and had great black horns on its head; and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over them and over all the oxen.
A literal translation of this passage describes a white bull with large horns feared by all animals, transforming all creatures into white bulls. The first among them becomes a nagar, a great beast with large black horns, rejoicing under the Lord of the sheep. The white bull is widely agreed to represent the Messiah, but identifying the nagar has been contentious. Some scholars, like Torrey, suggested that it represents Messiah ben Joseph, a view initially dismissed but later reconsidered. The interpretation hinges on the Ethiopic verb "to be" (kôna), which can mean "was" or "became," indicating transformation rather than simple existence.
The majority view is that the white bull transforms into the nagar, aligning with the messianic transformation depicted in scriptures like Zechariah 12:8. The nagar, described as a great beast with black horns, is identified through zoological analysis as the aurochs, an extinct wild ox. The Ethiopic translation likely arose from a Greek text, which itself was based on an Aramaic original where the word for aurochs (rêma) was transliterated, causing confusion.
The Ethiopic word nagar signifies a 'thing, word, deed'. However, such a reading is unsatisfactory, for it is not consistent with the animal symbolism of the passage. The Ethiopic translator recognized this. For he brings the nagar firmly back to the animal kingdom by explaining that it is a great beast with great black horns on its head. Such then is the nagar. Now which beast could this be?
The interpretation of the passage suggests that the Messiah, represented as a white bull (indicating purity and power), undergoes transformation and is eventually identified as an aurochs, symbolizing a transformed hero from Joseph-Ephraim lineage. Mitchell concurs with the widely-accepted view that the nagar is an aurochs. We may now render the passage as follows:
And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns, and all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air feared him and made petition to him all the time. And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all became white bulls; and the first among them became an aurochs (the aurochs was a great beast and had great black horns on its head; and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over them and over all the oxen.
This sacrificial Messiah transforms all mankind into his image, signifying redemption and transformation, aligning with the messianic themes found in Deuteronomy 33:17 and other biblical texts. The Messiah is born.
His representation as an ox shows his lineage from Joseph, Ephraim and Joshua. His whiteness shows that he is a faultless tsadik (cf. Isa. 1.18; Ps.
51.7)21; his large horns represent his majesty and power; the homage of the beasts and birds represents his acclamation among the nations. Nonethe-less, this unblemished creature is destined to die, for he is a firstborn bull.
Why is he a firstborn? Because he is called the 'first' among all those transformed and, since his birth brings about the transformation of all other creatures into his own likeness, he is evidently the first of a new species.22
His sacrificial death is not described, but its results are. The first result is that all mankind is transformed into the Messiah's image. The second result is that the Messiah himself is transformed like the shor of Deuteronomy 33.17, like innocent Joseph from his servile state into a new one of sovereignty and power. So this is not two Messiahs (as Torrey supposed), but the Messiah of Joseph in his two different manifestations or avatars, the sacrificial and the sovereign. And so his return from death to life is implied -whether by reincarnation, resurrection, resurgence, or some other reappearance as surely as the firstborn bull was destined to die. Then the exalted Messiah and all redeemed mankind live together in the favour of the Lord of the Sheep, the God of Israel.
Of course, the Enoch passage would be incomprehensible without the Deuteronomy subtext. But with it, it is unmistakable. The narrative of the Messiah's sacrificial death and subsequent transformation underscores the dual manifestations of the Messiah in his roles of sacrifice and sovereignty, culminating in a harmonious existence under the favor of the God of Israel.
The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is a collection of twelve discourses attributed to the sons of Jacob. These texts exist primarily in Greek, with some Hebrew and Aramaic versions, sparking debate over their dating. Initially considered Jewish texts from the second century BC with later Christian interpolations, a mid-20th-century view posited them as second-century AD Christian texts based on Jewish material. The discovery of Hebrew and Aramaic portions among the Dead Sea Scrolls suggests a pre-Christian origin for parts of these testaments, particularly the Testaments of Naphtali and Levi. Thus, each passage must be evaluated independently for its origin and date.
T. NAPH. 5.1-8. MESSIANIC TESTIMONIUM WITH EXALTED JOSEPH
Our first text is the Testament of Naphtali 5.1-8:
For in the fortieth year of my life, I saw a vision on the Mount of Olives, on the east of Jerusalem, that the sun and the moon were standing still. And behold Isaac, the father of my father, said to us, Run and lay hold of them, each one according to his strength; and to him that seizeth them, to him will the sun and moon belong. And we all of us ran together, and Levi laid hold of the sun, and Judah outstripped the others and seized the moon, and they were both of them lifted up with them. And when Levi became as a sun, lo, a certain young man gave to him twelve branches of palm; and Judah was bright as the moon, and under his feet were twelve rays. And Levi and Judah ran, and laid hold of them. And, a bull [appeared] upon the earth, with two great horns, and an 'eagle's wings upon its back; and we wished to seize him, but could not. For Joseph came, and seized him, and ascended up with him on high. And I saw, for I was there. And behold a holy writing appeared to us saying: Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, Syrians, shall possess in captivity the twelve tribes of Israel.
The Testament of Naphtali 5.1-8 describes a vision where the sun and moon stand still, with Levi seizing the sun, Judah the moon, and Joseph a great-horned bull with eagle's wings. Several details of the passage suggest that the bull is Joseph's messianic descendant. This bull is seen as a messianic symbol, carrying Joseph heavenward from the Mount of Olives. The narrative's messianic context is underscored by the setting on the Mount of Olives, a known venue for messianic events as referenced in Zechariah 14:4-8 and Acts 1:11-12.
Throughout the Testaments, the patriarch figures appear in one of two ways. Either they narrate the events of Bible history, particularly the Genesis narrative, or else they represent future messiah-type deliverers who are to spring from their seed. This is particularly so with Levi and Judah. A typical example is found in the Testament of Simeon:
And now, my children, obey Levi and Judah... For the Lord shall raise up from Levi as it were a high-priest, and from Judah as it were a king (T. Sim. 7.1-3).
Since Levi and Judah are messianic types throughout the Testaments, and since their exaltation to cosmic bodies argues for the same here, it follows that Joseph's appearing with them would lead us to conclude that Joseph is to be seen here as pointing to his messianic descendant.
Joseph's bull represents his messianic descendant, linking to the ox in Deuteronomy 33:17, depicted as an aurochs with great horns. This ascent into heaven is significant, as it parallels the messianic ascent seen in texts like 4 Ezra and various New Testament passages, where the Messiah ascends and returns in glory.
But is there any evidence to support the idea that people believed in multiple messiahs from Judah, Levi, and Joseph? Yes, there is. In fact, the polymessianic testimonium is a well-attested genre in texts from this period onward. The Dead Sea text 4Q175 (40Testimonia) and the Four Craftsmen baraitha of rabbinic literature, feature four deliverers: the King Messiah, Priest Messiah, and Josephite Messiah of our text, plus the prophet Elijah. The Targum Yerushalmi on Exodus 40.9-11 features the same three heroes as our present text, that is, Messiahs from Judah, Levi, and Joseph.30 And a host of rabbinic texts feature Messiahs from Judah and Joseph together with Elijah, who combines the roles of prophet and priest.31 All these texts expect not merely one messiah, but a whole team.
Next, the Mount of Olives, where the vision takes place, also hints at a messianic interpretation of the passage. Ever since Zechariah's eschatological vision, where the Holy One lands on the Mount, which splits beneath his feet, to inaugurate the messianic malkut (14.4-8), the Mount was seen as a prime venue of messianic activity. In second temple times it was known as har ha-meshiha, Mount of Anointing or by homophony-Mount of the Messiah. Acts 1.11-12 anticipates the coming of the Messiah to the Mount. Josephus tells of a messianic claimant of his time summoning his followers to the Mount, from whence he planned to invade Jerusalem (Ant. XX.viii.6). The Codex Reuchlinianus text of the Targum on Zechariah inserts the resurrection of the dead- commonly understood to be a messianic function after the Holy One appears on the Mount (14.4). The Targum on the Songs of Songs has all the dead of Israel rise from within the split Mount (8.5). Later midrashic literature either places the Messiah on the Mount, or has the Holy One appear there to instate him.
Joseph ascends into the heavens. Again, this is not an event from the Genesis narrative, for Joseph the Patriarch never ascended on high, unless his promotion to Pharaoh's right hand is greatly exaggerated. Indeed, ascent into heaven is no everyday occurrence. Apart from Enoch and Elijah, the only person to whom Israelite literature regularly accords the honour is the Messiah. The idea is found throughout the New Testament, of course, where the Messiah ascends from the Mount of Olives like bull-borne Joseph. It is found too in 4 Ezra, where the Messiah dies, ascends into heaven, and then returns in triumph. And it is implied in several texts where the Messiah returns from heaven.
All shall obey him who descends again into the world (Sib. Or. 3.95).
A certain one shall come again from heaven, a man pre-eminent. (Sib. Or. 5.526).
And the man who renewed the law in the power of the Most High you called a deceiver and finally you shall rush to kill him, not knowing his eminence, taking innocent blood on your head;..and your place will not be clean but you will be among the nations for a curse and a dispersion until he shall again visit you and have pity on you and receive you through faith and water (T. Lev. 16.3, 5).
And it shall come to pass after these things, when the time of the advent of the Messiah is fulfilled, that he shall return in glory. Then all who have fallen asleep in hope of him shall rise again (2 Bar. 30.1-2).
God will purify Israel...on the chosen day when he will bring again (aváçet) his Messiah (Pss. Sol. 18.5)
The Testament of Naphtali, supported by its Hebrew manuscripts and Dead Sea Scroll fragments, indicates an Israelite, pre-Christian origin. The text's depiction of separate messiahs from Levi, Judah, and Joseph contrasts with Christian tradition, which merges these roles into a single figure. Furthermore, the exaltation of Levi and Judah aligns with Jewish tradition rather than Christian views, as noted by scholars like Schürer.
In conclusion, the Testament of Naphtali portrays Joseph's exaltation through his messianic descendant, symbolized by the great-horned bull. The Joseph Patriarch ascending heavenward from the Mount of Olives on a great bull shows Joseph exalted in his messianic son, who is portrayed as an aurochs, as in Deuteronomy 33.17. Finally, the last verse of the passage suggests that the Josephite Messiah's ascent will be followed by the captivity of the tribes of Israel This would be consistent with texts such as in Zechariah 13.7-9. In that case, the fate of the exiled Israelites mirrors the suffering of Joseph and his messianic son.
T. BEN. 3.6-8. JOSEPH'S SON DIES FOR THE SINS OF THE WORLD
Given that a messianic hero from Joseph features in the Testament of Naphtali, it is reasonable to seek the same figure in other Testaments. The Testament of Benjamin contains a passage where Jacob blesses Joseph and prophesies that through him, the prophecy of heaven will be fulfilled.
Now therefore, my children, love the Lord the God of heaven and keep his commandments, imitating the good and holy man Joseph... "For Joseph even besought our father to pray for our brothers that the Lord would not account against them whatever evil they harboured against him. "And so Jacob cried out, ‘O child, O good child, you have overcome the bowels (of compassion) of Jacob your father.' And embracing him he kissed him for two hours saying, 'Heaven's prophecy [about the lamb of God and saviour of the world] will be fulfilled through you, for as spotless for the lawless will he be given up, and as sinless for the godless will he die [in the blood of the covenant, for the salvation of the Gentiles and of Israel; and he will destroy Beliar and his servants].
This prophecy speaks of one who is sinless and will die for the salvation of the godless, referred to as the Lamb of God and the Saviour of the World, though these specific titles are absent in some manuscripts.
The text from the Testament of Benjamin portrays Joseph as a figure who intercedes and sacrifices for others, aligning him with the suffering servant in Isaiah 52-53, who is described as being exalted after suffering. Despite disputes over the authenticity of certain phrases, the core message remains: a Josephite hero will die as an atonement sacrifice. Some scholars argue that this text is Jewish in origin, with potential Christian interpolations, while others see it as a Christian text.
Even without the debated phrases, the passage suggests a sacrificial atonement role for Joseph's descendant, similar to the suffering servant in Isaiah. This figure is depicted as one who, though sinless, dies for the lawless, reflecting the prophecy's fulfillment. The Testament of Joseph further supports this by noting that Joseph's temporary kingdom will eventually yield to Levi and Judah, who will bring about Israel's salvation, a concept found in later Jewish texts about the roles of Messiah ben Joseph and Messiah ben David. This portrayal underscores the idea of a messianic figure from Joseph's line who plays a crucial role in the salvation narrative.
SIBYLLINE ORACLES 5.256-259
Sibylline Oracles 5.256-259 describes the blessed land of the messianic time and mentions a 'man from heaven' and 'the noblest of the Hebrews.' This text, secure with only minor spelling differences between versions, raises questions about the verb "he spread." It is debated whether the 'noblest of the Hebrews' spread the hands of the 'man from heaven' upon the wood, or if they are the same person spreading his hands. Most commentators, seeing an allusion to crucifixion in the spreading of hands upon the wood, agree that the noblest Hebrew did not inflict this upon the heavenly man, thus suggesting that the two figures are one. The translation then reads:
"A certain one will come again from heaven, the most eminent of men, who spread upon the fruitful wood his palms, the noblest of the Hebrews, who once made the sun stand still by crying with fair speech and lips unsullied."
This figure, described as the noblest of the Hebrews and a second Joshua (Joshua made the sun stand still in Joshua 10:12-14), is expected to return from heaven, implying a previous earthly presence and ascension. The hope of a second Joshua should not surprise us. As we have seen, the Blessing of Moses looks for an Ephraimite conqueror greater than Joshua (Deut. 33.17). Habakkuk sees Joshua as the mashiah of the ETERNAL, and hopes for his deeds to be repeated anew (Hab. 3.11-13, 16). And Psalm I presents the Messiah as a second Joshua. The idea that the Messiah should reappear glorious after suffering is implicit in Deuteronomy 33.17 and Isaiah 53.10-12.
More unusual altogether are the words about his spreading his hands upon the fruitful wood. Not surprisingly, the spreading of hands upon the fruitful wood is widely interpreted as a crucifixion reference, though some scholars argue it might not be a Christian gloss but rather a pre-Christian Jewish reference to another figure, like the Teacher of Righteousness, Menahem the Essene, or Simon of Perea.
Moreover, Kraft suggests the fruitful wood could symbolize Moses's miraculous rod, carried by the Messiah as a symbol of office in Samaritan eschatology. This fruitful tree imagery resonates with Jacob's blessing on Joseph in Genesis 49:22, describing Joseph as a fruitful plant spreading out. If crucifixion is implied, biblical passages such as Psalm 22:16-17, Isaiah 53:5, Zechariah 12:10, and the Septuagint of Psalm 95:10 ("Our God is reigning from the tree") support the idea of a suffering yet fruitful Messiah. The tree of crucifixion has become Joseph's fruitful tree which overspreads all bounds. After all, the cross was an Israelite sign of divine protection before it was a symbol of crucifixion.≤s A man pierced on a tree, though under a curse, was hanging on the sign of his deliverance.
Thus, the text describes a second Joshua returning from heaven, associated with Joseph's fruitful tree, possibly in a sacrificial death. Whether line 257 is a Christian gloss or a pre-Christian Jewish text, the ideas within it have strong biblical precedents, highlighting the expectation of a messianic figure who suffers and returns gloriously.
THE APOCALYPSE OF EZRA 7.28-29
The Apocalypse of Ezra, written around AD 100, reflects a Jewish attempt to understand the devastation following the Roman destruction of Jerusalem. Composed originally in Hebrew, the text was translated into multiple languages, including Greek and Latin. While the Semitic original and most of the Greek text are lost, the surviving versions primarily rely on the old Latin version. The book is structured with a Christian framework (chapters 1-2 and 15-16) surrounding the central Jewish Apocalypse (chapters 3-14). This Christian framework includes parallels to Jesus' sayings and a reference to the Messiah as the Son of God.
The core Jewish section, chapters 3-14, contains little to suggest Christian influence, except for 4 Ezra 7:28-30. This passage mentions, "my son Jesus," who will be revealed, reign for 400 years, die, and lead to the world's return to primeval chaos. Different versions refer to the Messiah more generally, but only the Latin version explicitly names "Jesus," raising suspicions of Christian interpolation. Commentators argue that if a Christian had interpolated this, they would have clarified details aligning with Christian theology, such as the specific identity of Jesus as the Nazarene.
Furthermore, the text speaks of a messianic figure who is expected to die and then reappear as a triumphant lion of Judah (4 Ezra 12:31-34). This aligns with the Jewish expectation of two Messiahs: one from Joseph and one from David, paralleling the second Joshua (Jesus) and the lion of Judah. This interpretation suggests that the reference to "Jesus" could indeed be original, representing a second Joshua promised by Moses, who would die sacrificially (Deuteronomy 33:17) and reappear triumphantly as a messianic figure from Judah.
Therefore, the supposedly Christian detail of the dying Jesus in 4 Ezra may reflect pre-Christian Pharisaic messianic ideas rather than later Christian interpolation. This perspective sees the Latin text as preserving authentic Jewish messianic beliefs, with "Jesus" representing the second Joshua and the lion of Judah as the victorious Messiah from David's line.
JOSEPH AND ASENETH
In the book "Joseph and Aseneth," Joseph is described as the "son of God," "God's firstborn son," unbegotten by man, and all-knowing, like the sun from heaven. When Joseph is revealed to Aseneth, the daughter of Pentephres the priest, she renounces idol worship, becomes Joseph's bride, and is named "City of Refuge" (15.7). This language suggests Joseph as a redeemer figure, a bridegroom messiah coming to claim his chosen city. Whether Aseneth is seen as an Egyptian or as the Jewish daughter of Dinah, as rabbinic tradition suggests, impacts the interpretation: Joseph either represents the Messiah redeeming the Gentiles or redeeming Israel from Gentile idolatry.
Dating "Joseph and Aseneth" is challenging, with estimates ranging from a Jewish work of the second century BC in Egypt to a sixth-century AD Christian work. However, the date and authorship do not alter the text's content. Regardless of the writer's identity—Jew, Christian, or both—the portrayal of Joseph prefigures the Messiah. This depiction aligns Joseph with the messianic role, emphasizing his significance as a redemptive and divine figure, much like the sun from heaven.
BEN SIRA 46.1
Finally, although not a pseudepigraphic text, we should mention the book of Jesus ben Sira, composed in the early second century BC, probably in Alexandria, and translated into Greek by his grandson in the latter part of the same century. Ben Sira gives a lengthy encomium of Joshua son of Nun (46:1-10). The passage begins with, "Mighty in war was Jesus ben Nave (Yehoshua ben Nun), a successor of Moses in prophecies, who became, according to his name, great for the salvation of his elect, to take vengeance on enemies when stirred up, so that he might give Israel an inheritance" (Ben Sira 46:1). The name "Yehoshua" means "YHVH saves," and the intentional ambiguity of "his elect" suggests that Yehoshua, becoming great for their salvation, is the savior of his elect and thus YHVH Himself, the savior and caller of the elect. This implies that the bestowing of the name "Yehoshua" made Hoshea a divine savior, the initial fulfillment of the Shepherd-Rock promise to Joseph. However, Ben Sira would have acknowledged that Joshua ben Nun did not ultimately fulfill this promise, as he did not subdue all nations or bring Israel into perpetual liberty. Instead, Joshua is seen as a type of a greater Joshua to come, with similar implications of the name found in later messianic texts such as Matthew 1:21 and in Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho.
Chapter 5 Summary
Pseudepigraphic texts from between the second century BC and the first century AD indicate that some Israelite writers anticipated a second Joshua redeemer from the house of Joseph. In I Enoch 90:37-38, drawing on the imagery of the shor and rem in Deuteronomy's Blessing on Joseph, a sacrificial, white, firstborn-ox Messiah is depicted. This Messiah will transform mankind into his image and then himself be transformed into a triumphant aurochs. The Testament of Naphtali presents a messianic testimonium, highlighting eschatological figures from Judah, Levi, and Joseph, with patriarch Joseph being borne heavenward in the form of an aurochs by his messianic son. In the Testament of Benjamin 3:6-8, despite possible interpolations, there is a reference to a coming son of Joseph who will die for the impious. The Sibylline Oracles 5:256-259 describe a second Joshua returning from heaven, who spreads his hands upon the fruitful wood, transforming the crucifixion cross into Joseph's fruitful tree. The Apocalypse of Ezra discusses a Joshua Messiah, the son of God, who dies, ascends to heaven, and later reappears or is replaced by a leonine Messiah. In Joseph and Aseneth, Joseph is depicted as a Bridegroom Messiah who rescues his city-bride. Ben Sirach uses the meaning of the name Joshua to identify Joshua ben Nun with YHVH, suggesting Joshua as the promised Shepherd-Rock from Shaddai, yet implying that Joshua's incomplete conquest points to a greater Joshua Shepherd-Rock to come.
While some of these texts may contain Christian interpolations, their numerous and diverse features, often foreign to Christian beliefs, suggest that they are less altered than typically thought. Instead, they reflect pre-Christian views that Moses's Blessing on Joseph foreshadowed a sacrificial second Joshua.