Book Review Series: 'Messiah ben Joseph' - Detailed Review: Chapter Three
Messiah ben Joseph in the Prophets
Upon Moses's death, his blessing on the Josephites was partly realized through Joshua ben Nun, who, like a powerful rem, led Israel into the Promised Land by conquering nations. However, after settling, Israel's tribal distinctions solidified into geopolitical boundaries. Judah emerged as the leader of the southern tribes, while the northern tribes, particularly Ephraim, sought leadership among the descendants of Joseph. Benjamin, despite its close ties to the Josephites, fell under Judah's influence. The united monarchy initially formed under Benjamite Saul, but after his lineage ended, leadership transitioned to Judahite David and Solomon. Following Solomon's death, the Ephraimites broke away, forming the northern Kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam ben Nevat, who introduced idolatrous practices. For two centuries, this kingdom coexisted uneasily with Judah, with periods of dominance shifting between them. Despite prophetic denunciations, Ephraimite idolatry persisted until Assyrian conquests between 734 and 720 BCE deported many of the northern tribes. Some Ephraimites remained, and Judean kings like Hezekiah and Josiah attempted to reunite and reform the remnants. After Josiah's death and the Babylonian exile, Ephraimites continued to visit Jerusalem for worship. This historical context sets the stage for Judean hopes for the restoration of the deported Ephraimites. Prophets like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel predicted their return, sometimes envisioning a Josephite king to lead this resurgence, with figures like Micah and Habakkuk specifically anticipating a future leader from Joseph's line.
Amos
In the mid-eighth century, the prophet Amos condemns the idolatry of the Ephraimites and predicts their imminent exile. He draws a poignant parallel between the mourning of Jacob for his beloved son Joseph (Gen 37:35) and the future lamentation for the exiled children of Ephraim. Amos foresees that the grief for the exiled Ephraimites will be as profound as the mourning for an only son (Amos 8:10). Despite this dire prediction, Amos also prophesies a hopeful future where the Ephraimites, after being sifted and purified among the nations, will ultimately be regathered to the land of Israel.
Isaiah
Isaiah's prophecies mark a significant shift in Israelite thought, presenting long-range visions of Jerusalem's glory that go beyond the earlier mentions of Israel's hope (Deut. 33.27-29). His prophetic ministry begins in the final years of Uzziah's reign and continues through the Assyrian invasions, the failed attack on Jerusalem, and the conquest of the Kingdom of Ephraim. Isaiah predicts that the humbled territory of Galilee will see a great light and rejoice, with the exiles of Israel and Judah being gathered together. Ephraim and Judah will reunite to conquer their enemies, and those lost in Assyria will return to worship on Zion. Additionally, Israelites scattered among all nations will be brought back to Jerusalem by foreign peoples.
The Book of Isaiah is divided into two parts. The first part anticipates a king from the house of David who will bring salvation. However, the second part introduces a distinct figure called the Servant of the ETERNAL, who, although referred to as Israel, is an individual tasked with saving and gathering the nation. This Servant will endure mortal suffering on Israel's behalf and then reappear triumphantly to establish God's rule and universal righteousness. The fourth passage about this Servant, "Hinneh yaskil avdi" (Behold, my servant shall succeed), is the most extensive and debated section.
"Hinneh yaskil avdi" is the Bible's central text on atoning suffering, describing a figure destined for greatness (52:13, 15), obedient to the ETERNAL (53:4), who endures suffering, contempt, and shame (52:14; 53:2-5). This Servant is delivered into the hands of tyrants but hopes for final vindication from on high (53:7-9). He becomes an innocent victim, despised, afflicted, and pierced, ultimately dying and being cut off from the land of the living (53:3-9, 12). Although his sufferings are perceived as divine punishment, he willingly sacrifices himself as an asham (sacrifice of atonement) (53:10-12). His suffering atones for the sins of the nation and justifies and sprinkles "the many" and all nations. After enduring this, he will see the outcome of his suffering and be satisfied, be exalted among the great, and kings will wait upon his word (53:12; 52:13-15).
The identity of this figure is a subject of debate. He is clearly appointed and saved by God and is a royal figure, as kings wait upon his word. Israelite interpreters have long seen this figure as the Messiah, a view reflected in the Bible itself and later in the Septuagint, which translates the Hebrew past tenses of Isaiah 52:14-15 as future events, indicating someone yet to come. The Hebrew word "yoneg" (root) in 53:2 is rendered as "son" (paidion), similar to the messianic son in Isaiah 9:5. Additionally, the rendering of the Hebrew "dôro" as Greek "genean autou" in Isaiah 53:8 shifts the meaning from "who can speak of his offspring" to "who can speak of his genealogy," suggesting an immortal figure, a point emphasized by Justin Martyr (Dial. 43, 63, 68, 76, 89). Ben Sira 48.10 views the "servant" of Isaiah 49:6 as an Elijah-like figure who will restore the ten tribes. The Book of Enoch repeatedly calls the Messiah the "Elect" and "Righteous One," terms derived from Isaiah 42:1 and 53:11. A messianic interpretation of Isaiah's figure is also evident in the Testament of Reuben and the Testament of Benjamin, as well as the Wisdom of Solomon, which uses language from Isaiah's figure to describe the persecution of the righteous. Neusner and Green see this interpretive tradition as leading into the New Testament.
The Dead Sea Scrolls text, 4Q541, from the second century BC, interprets Isaiah's figure as a messianic individual. The Self-Exaltation Hymn within this text describes a man who was once despised and rejected but is now exalted, raised from the earth, and enthroned in heaven. Some interpret this figure as an angel, but as Kohl argues, angels are not humiliated on earth nor raised to heavenly realms since they belong there naturally. Therefore, the characteristics of this exalted figure are human and messianic.
The Targum on Isaiah also preserves the messianic identity of the figure despite rewriting much of Isaiah's text to shift the sufferings onto the nations. It states:
"Behold, my servant the Messiah shall prosper; he shall be high and extolled and exceedingly strong" (52.13); "He will be despised" (53.5); "He was delivered over on account of our iniquities" (53.6); "He shall divide the spoil because he delivered his life unto death; and he shall make the rebellious to keep the law; he shall pray for the sins of many, and as for the transgressors, each shall be pardoned for his sake" (53.13).
In the Talmud, the messianic interpretation is taught by the former sages, Our rabbis, and contrasts with the interpretations of later generations, who jocularly named the Messiah after their own teachers. Rav said the world was created for David's sake, Samuel for Moses's sake, and R. Johanan for the sake of the Messiah. Different schools identified the Messiah's name as Shiloh, Yinnon, Haninah, or Menahem ben Hezekiah, each linking it to various scriptural references (Isa. 53.4) (B. Sanh. 98b).
Ruth Rabbah also sees Isaiah's figure as the Messiah, speaking of the King Messiah's sufferings and eventual restoration of his kingdom (Ruth R. 5.6 on Ruth 2.14). Similarly, the seventh-century piyut, 'Az mi-lifnei bereshit', found in the musaf prayer for Yom Kippur, interprets Isaiah's figure as the Messiah, associating his suffering and exaltation with future redemption.
Despite this, Collins argues there is no evidence for a Jewish interpretation of Isaiah 53 as a suffering Messiah. However, Boyarin counters that until nearly the modern period, many Jewish authorities read Isaiah 53 as messianic. Ancient rabbinic readings consistently view the passage as concerning the Messiah and his tribulations.
Isaiah's suffering king has long been seen as a messianic figure. Later interpreters identified Isaiah's servant as Messiah ben Joseph. Four features of the passage support this idea:
1) the general analogy of Joseph's life with Isaiah's king figure. Both are beloved and chosen by God; both are betrayed to suffering and death, disdained and nullified by those who inflicted the suffering upon them; but both by their sufferings give life to their people; both are finally vindicated and rise to sovereignty.
2) the imagery of a fruitful plant growing from dry ground. Just as Joseph is the fruitful plant growing beside a spring, so Isaiah's figure is a sprout out of dry ground (Isa. 53.2; Gen. 49.22). One might object that the ground around Joseph's spring is not said to be dry. But the dryness is surely implied in Joseph's life; for it was not in lush meadows, but in the harsh adversities of arid Egypt that Joseph grew strong and fruitful. Other early interpreters of Joseph's plant do not miss the point. The psalmist's fruitful tree would wither if it were not planted upon streams of water (Ps. 1.3). And Jeremiah's tree does not fear heat or drought for it is planted upon a spring (Jer. 17.8). Likewise, Isaiah's servant shares the key Joseph image of a fruitful plant out of dry ground.
3) the depiction of the figure as pierced-through. Just as Jacob depicted Joseph as the innocent man attacked by archers, so Isaiah's figure is meholal or 'pierced-through'. Again, one might object that Jacob's metaphorical archers are not said actually to pierce Joseph. But, to dwell in the metaphor, they did not trouble him by continually missing him; the arrows of treachery entered into his being.
4) the comparison to a ewe-lamb silent before her shearers, invoking Rachel, Joseph's mother. Isaiah's figure is like a ewe-lamb, a rohel or rachel, silent before her shearers (Isa. 53.7; Gen. 29.6-9). Just as a brand name immediately evokes the associated product, so the name rachel conjures up Rachel the shepherdess, the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, the progenitress of the northern tribes Ephraim and Manasseh.
The Josephite imagery in "Hinneh yaskil avdi" points to a future figure rather than a historical one like Joseph or Joshua, because the fruit of the servant's suffering is set in the future.. It is unlikely to refer to an Ephraimite king of the writer's own day due to ongoing conflicts between Judeans and Ephraimites. Therefore, Isaiah may be speaking of a future figure, possibly the coming Ephraimite world-ruler promised by Jacob and Moses. Prophecies often have both historical and future references, and Isaiah's Suffering Servant could be a future second Joseph, akin to the second Moses concept from the Testament of Benjamin.
Obadiah
Obadiah, speaking after the Ephraimite captivity, prophesies the restoration of the Ephraimites. He envisions a time when the house of Jacob will be fire and the house of Joseph a flame to consume the Edomites. The Israelites will inherit the fields of Ephraim and Samaria, and the exiled host will possess lands as far as Tsarfat near Sidon. Deliverers will ascend Mount Zion, heralding the long-awaited kingdom (Obad. 18-21). Rabbinic sages interpreted this as the resurgent Josephites conquering Roman power, identified as 'Edom', a view supported by Saadia Gaon and midrashic literature. Rather later, the Malim says that the deliverers are Messiah ben David and Messiah ben Joseph.
Micah
Micah, prophesying during the Ephraimite captivity, echoes this restoration theme. He speaks of the ETERNAL as a shepherd who will gather and heal the limping and excluded sheep (Micah 4.6-7). This ewe-lamb, symbolizing Rachel and her Ephraimite descendants, will be brought back to the fold, with the ETERNAL ruling over them from Mount Zion. Micah then addresses Migdal Eder, or the Tower of the Flock, confirming the connection to Rachel. This tower was a landmark associated with Rachel's death and burial near Bethlehem (Gen. 35.19-21). It demarcated the area where flocks were reared for temple sacrifices.
Micah's prophecy suggests that the authority of Jerusalem will be ceded to Migdal Eder, indicating that the kingship will devolve upon one identified with this tower. This implies a restoration of the 'first dominion', referring to a kingship predating David, possibly associated with Joshua and the Ephraimites. Micah's narrative continues, speaking of Daughter Zion's exile and redemption, and the birth of a ruler in Bethlehem-Efrat, Rachel's place of mortal travail, who will shepherd Israel in the strength of the ETERNAL (Micah 4.10-13; 5.2-4).
This Bethlehemite ruler is described as having origins "from of old, from eternal days" (Micah 5.2), suggesting a connection to the Shepherd-Rock prophesied to come from Joseph. This ruler's appearance will initiate the gathering of the Ephraimites. Midrash Yelamdenu supports this interpretation, linking Rachel's prophecy about Joseph to a future Messiah arising from Joseph (Gen. 30.24). This reading is consistent with Israelite tradition, as reflected in Targum interpretations and the New Testament's citation of Micah concerning the Messiah's birth in Bethlehem (Matt. 2.4-6).
Finally, various Jewish texts, including the Targum Yerushalmi, Talmud Bavli, Talmud Yerushalmi, and commentators like Rashi, support the view that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem, reinforcing the association with Rachel and the Ephraimite heritage. This suggests that the promised Ephraimite world-ruler, akin to a Shepherd-Rock, will emerge from Bethlehem, fulfilling ancient prophecies and initiating the gathering of the Ephraimites.
Zephaniah
Zephaniah, writing a century after Micah during the time of Josiah, envisions a future where "she that is lame" will be saved and "she that was driven out" will be gathered in (Zephaniah 3:19). Given the context that the Ephraimites are in exile while the Judahites remain in the land, it is implied that the "lame and excluded one" refers to the ewe-lamb or Rachel, symbolizing her exiled Ephraimite descendants. Zephaniah's confident use of this imagery suggests that his audience was familiar with Micah's prophecy or at least understood the depiction of the exiled Ephraimites, Rachel's children, as a wounded and banished ewe-lamb.
Habakkuk
Habakkuk, who prophesied around the rise of Babylonian power starting in 612 BCE, includes a song or psalm in the third chapter of his prophecy, which is addressed to the Director of Music and suggests he might have been a temple singer (Habakkuk 3:19). Confronted by the imminent Babylonian invasion, Habakkuk reflects on a past event when the ETERNAL caused the sun and moon to stand still to deliver His people and save His anointed, or mashiah, while crushing the prince of a wicked land (Habakkuk 3:11-13). The mashiah he recalls is Joshua, the one for whom the sun and moon stood still during his battle against the Amorites (Joshua 10:12-14). The Greek Sexta translation makes this reference explicit, stating, "You went out to save your people by Joshua your Messiah." Thus, Habakkuk views this past deliverance as a foreshadowing of a future event, longing for another Joshua mashiah, a Josephite prince, to defeat Babylon as Joshua defeated the Amorites.
Jeremiah
Jeremiah (circa 626-585 BC), an Aaronite priest from Benjamin, laments the fate of the captive Ephraimites but predicts their return to the land. He views Josiah's mission to gather Ephraimites to Jerusalem as a precursor to a future time when they will return from the north to live with Judah, and all nations will gather to worship in Jerusalem, eclipsing the Exodus from Egypt. Jeremiah's sufferings, reminiscent of Joseph's at the hands of Judah, include being thrown into a pit without water (Jer. 38:6; Gen. 37:24) and being attacked by bowmen (Gen. 49:23; Jer. 9:3, 8). Chapters 30-33 of Jeremiah contain the longest sustained prophecy about the regathering of Ephraimites, foretelling the restoration of both Judah and Israel after Babylonian exile. They will multiply, prosper, and live under a new covenant with the house of David (Jer. 30:3; 31:30; 33:7, 19-26). Ephraim is specifically mentioned as the ETERNAL's firstborn, who will be gathered back, comforted, and shown mercy (Jer. 31:1-20). Rachel's weeping will end as her children return from exile (Jer. 31:14-16). Jeremiah also speaks of the regathered Josephites leading vengeance on the Edomites and bringing Israel back to its pastures in Ephraimite lands (Jer. 49:20; 50:18-20). Despite honoring Ephraim as the firstborn, Jeremiah does not mention a Josephite ruler but presents Josiah in Josephite terms as a fruitful plant and foresees a reunited Israel and Judah ruled by a king from David's line.
Ezekiel
Ezekiel, a priest taken captive to Babylon in the early sixth century BC, prophesies the resurgence of the Josephites. He predicts that captive Samaria and her daughters will return (Ezek. 16:53-55) and that the ETERNAL will gather His scattered flock, the "whole house of Israel," back to their land (Ezek. 20:40-41; 34:11-24), an event likened to a resurrection from dry bones (Ezek. 37:1-15). Ezekiel foresees the reunification of the house of Joseph and the Ephraimites with the house of Judah; together they will be revived, restored, and return from exile (Ezek. 37:15-23). They will form one kingdom under the eternal rule of David, their shepherd, king, and prince (Ezek. 34:23-24; 37:24-25). There is debate whether this refers to David himself restored to life or a descendant from his line. Their oppressors will be vanquished (Ezek. 35:1-36:7), and the people will be gathered, pardoned, and renewed; the land will become fruitful, populous, and rebuilt (Ezek. 36:8-38). Following an invasion by Gog and Magog, which will end with divine destruction by fire (Ezek. 38-39), the temple will be rebuilt (Ezek. 40-47). Joseph will again receive the firstborn's double portion (Ezek. 47:13), and the twelve tribes will dwell in their land surrounding the restored temple (Ezek. 48:1-35).
Zechariah
Zechariah prophesied in the late 6th century BC, during the period when Judahite exiles began to return from Babylon. He, like earlier prophets, foresaw the revival of the exiled Josephites. Zechariah predicts that the ETERNAL will free prisoners from the "pit with no water in it" (Zech. 9:11), echoing Joseph's captivity in a pit without water (Gen. 37:24). These prisoners, identified as the tribes of Joseph, are promised Joseph's double portion upon their return. They will reunite with the Judahites to form a powerful force under the ETERNAL, triumphing in battle and living in prosperity (Zech. 9:13-17). Another prophecy states that both Judah and Ephraim will become mighty warriors, with the Judahites strengthened and the Josephites saved and gathered from distant lands, eventually repatriated in Gilead and Lebanon (Zech. 10:5-12).
Zechariah describes a coming king who will bring peace to the nations and end warfare in Israel (Zech. 9:9-10). This king, depicted as just and victorious, humble and riding a donkey (Ps. 45:4), will rule from sea to sea (Ps. 72:8), suggesting he is a descendant of King David. The prophecy confirms this by stating that the ETERNAL remembers the house of Judah, making them His splendid war-stallion, from which the cornerstone, the stake, the battle-bow, and every ruler will come (Zech. 10:3-4). The Judahites and Josephites will be restored and reunited in the land (Zech. 10:6-12). During a great conflict for Jerusalem, the house of David will be like God, and like the angel of the ETERNAL leading them (Zech. 12:8).
These events are described as taking place in a future eschatological setting marked by the phrase "on that day" (ba-yom ha-hu) (Zech. 14:8, 16-19). The narrative concludes with a life-giving stream watering the earth and all nations worshipping the ETERNAL in an eschatological Feast of Sukkot. This suggests that the central king figure is a Messiah, a divinely appointed king to gather and save Israel and rule the world at the end of times.
In chapters 11 to 13, Zechariah introduces two more figures: a stricken shepherd (Zech. 11:4-17; 13:7-9) and a man pierced-through (Zech. 12:1-13:6). Both figures are kings, with the shepherd metaphorically representing a king and the pierced one receiving national mourning led by noble clans of Judah and Levi (Zech. 12:12), which implies a royal figure. Both share divine authority: the stricken shepherd is the ETERNAL's "my shepherd" (Zech. 11:17; 13:7), and his derisory hire price is seen as an insult to the ETERNAL (Zech. 11:13). The pierced king's piercing is likened to piercing the ETERNAL Himself (Zech. 12:10).
Both figures are messianic and share characteristics of being pierced or smitten by the sword. The literary structure places the pierced one between the stricken shepherd passages, suggesting they are the same person. Zechariah's stricken shepherd and pierced king are thus one and the same Messiah figure, slain in the hostility following the breaking of the bond between Judah and Israel (Zech. 11:14).
The stricken, pierced shepherd is as messianic as the figure riding a donkey in Zechariah 9:9-10. The first figure resembles Solomon, while the stricken figure resembles Joseph in several ways. The king is pierced after the breaking of the brotherhood between Judah and Ephraim (Zech. 11:14). Just as Joseph was pierced by his brothers and then looked to (Gen. 37:26-27; 45:3; 49:23), Judah's children will look to the pierced king (Zech. 12:10). Joseph's piercings brought life to those who despised him (Gen. 50:20-21), similar to how the sufferings of Zechariah's pierced king open a fountain to cleanse from sin (Zech. 13:1).
The opening of the fountain results from the king's death. Mourning for the king's death leads to the opening of the fountain, cleansing guilt (Zech. 12:10; 13:1). This cleansing likely represents a sacrificial act tied to the king's death. Zechariah's pierced shepherd, like Joseph, is sold for silver (Gen. 37:28; Zech. 11:12-13). The pricing of individuals for silver links these figures uniquely in Hebrew scriptures.
Zechariah presents two messianic figures, one like Solomon and the other like Joseph, suggesting they are the same figure, combining traits of both Judah and Joseph's promised world-rulers. This Messiah, resembling Solomon and Joseph, will rule from sea to sea and be betrayed, pierced, sold for silver, and mourned like a slain firstborn. He will then triumph as ruler of all nations.
Zechariah's sources include Isaiah's servant figure and Ezekiel's prophecies. Zechariah blends these influences, depicting the Messiah as a future divine king and sacrificial figure like Joseph. This prophecy, with its eschatological events and messianic figures, represents a sequence of events leading to the Messiah's rule. Zechariah also introduces new elements, such as the lamentation for the king's death like the mourning for Hadad-Rimmon in the valley of Megiddo (Zech. 12:11). This allusion to Baal-Hadad suggests the Messiah will die and reappear, bringing life to the land. The reference to Josiah, pierced by archers and mourned nationally, indicates Zechariah saw Josiah as an ideal ruler. Zechariah's Messiah, combining traits of Solomon and Joseph, will gather the Ephraimites, suffer, and rule like Solomon.
Summary of Chapter
The prophets foretold the restoration of the captive Ephraimites and exiled Judah, predicting their return to their land to dwell together again as one kingdom. There are differing views on who will lead this reunited nation. At least two pre-exilic prophets anticipated a hero from the house of Joseph. Micah envisioned one coming to Migdal Eder at Bethlehem, who would be a brother to the Ephraimites rather than the Judahites, restoring the 'first dominion,' and inheriting the authority of the house of David. Habakkuk looked for salvation in the form of another Joshua. However, Jeremiah and Ezekiel both predicted a future king from the house of David, with Jeremiah depicting King Josiah in Josephite colors. Meanwhile, Isaiah spoke of a coming royal figure with Josephite traits who would endure suffering and death as an atonement for many before triumphing. Zechariah combined features from all his precursors, depicting a coming king who shared characteristics of both the house of David and of Joseph, and who would endure suffering and death, resembling a second Joseph and a second Josiah. This diversity of messianic expectations, as noted by Robert Gordon, accommodated even the concept of an Ephraimite Messiah.
Some of these anticipated kings can be identified with historical figures from the prophets' own time, but others elude simple identification and appear more like divine figures than mortals. Micah's moshel has origins from olam (eternity), and the ETERNAL refers to Zechariah's king as "the man close to me," who is "like the angel of the ETERNAL," whose suffering and piercing insult and wound the ETERNAL himself. Additionally, the Septuagint translator views the suffering king of Isaiah 53:8 as a man without genealogy, emphasizing his divine and eternal nature.