Book Review Series: 'Messiah ben Joseph' - Detailed Review: Chapter Six and Seven
Chapter Six - Messiah ben Joseph in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Inscriptions
In the previous chapter, we observed that both I Enoch and The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs share characteristics with some Dead Sea Scrolls texts. Given that these pseudepigraphic texts feature a Josephite Messiah figure, we might expect to find a similar figure in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Notably, two Dead Sea texts, 4QTestimonia and 4Q372.1, depict such a figure, with others potentially pointing in the same direction.
4QTestimonia
4QTestimonia (4Q175), dating from the early first century BC, is a well-preserved single-page text composed of four distinct paragraphs or sections, marked by spaces and hook-shaped symbols. Despite some damage to the bottom right-hand corner of the page, which affects the fourth testimony, the text remains largely comprehensible. This document has been described as a "messianic anthology" and a collection of fundamental biblical texts related to messianic beliefs.
Each of the four sections in 4QTestimonia cites a Bible text ending with a curse: (1) Deuteronomy 18:18-19, about the prophet like Moses; (2) Numbers 24:15-17, about the star from Jacob; (3) Deuteronomy 33:8-11, the blessing of the Levites; and (4) Joshua 6:26, Joshua's curse on Jericho, followed by a passage from another Dead Sea Scrolls document, the Joshua Apocryphon (4Q379). Since the Joshua Apocryphon includes Joshua 6:26, the entire fourth testimony effectively derives from 4Q379. Scholars generally agree that the figures in the first three testimonies—Moses, the Star, and the Priest—represent anticipated prophet, king, and priest figures, respectively.
The fourth testimony, often overlooked, reads:
"At the moment when Joshua finished praising and giving thanks with his psalms, he said, 'Cursed be the man who rebuilds this city! Upon his firstborn will he found it, and upon his youngest son will he erect its gates!' (Joshua 6:26). And now an accursed man, one of Belial, has arisen to be a fowler's trap for his people and ruin for all his neighbors. ...will arise, to be the two instruments of violence. And they will rebuild a city, presumably the one Joshua destroyed."
Commentators suggest that the various villains represent enemies of the Qumran sect, yet they often neglect the Joshua figure himself.
Considering the structure of 4QTestimonia, with each section comprising a hero figure, Bible verse, and curse, the fourth testimony should be interpreted similarly to the first three. This interpretation suggests a latter-day Joshua, an Ephraimite hero, or a Messiah ben Joseph. Thus, 4QTestimonia presents four anticipated hero figures: a prophet like Moses, a King Messiah from David, a righteous priest, and a Joshua Messiah from Joseph. This polymessianic structure aligns with the eschatological scenarios found in the Testament of Naphtali and appears again in various rabbinic traditions, such as the "Four Craftsmen" in the Babylonian Talmud (Sukkah 52b).
Therefore, viewing 4QTestimonia with its antecedents and subsequent interpretations, it becomes evident that the text is messianic throughout. The fourth section, pointing to a second Joshua or Messiah ben Joseph, reinforces this messianic theme, firmly situating the document within the broader tradition of polymessianic testimonia that span from Hasmonean times to well into the first millennium of our era.
4Q372
The manuscript 4Q372, often referred to as The Joseph Apocryphon or more vaguely as 4Q Narrative and Poetic Composition, was discovered near the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim. It consists of three large fragments (4Q371-373) and 24 smaller pieces. The manuscript, dated paleographically to the late Hasmonean or early Herodian period (circa 50 BCE), was initially edited by Schuller, with suggested emendations by Qimron, and later revised by Schuller and Bernstein incorporating those emendations. Schuller, on linguistic grounds, dates the work itself to the Persian-Hellenistic period (circa 200 BCE).
The largest fragment, 4Q372.1, discusses Joseph. Schuller posits that in biblically-based material, 'Joseph' can refer either to the Genesis narrative or to the tribes of the northern kingdom. She concludes that in this text, 'Joseph' refers to the northern tribes, presenting it as an anti-Samaritan polemic, a theory widely accepted but largely focused on specific details like Joseph's prayer rather than the overall meaning of the text.
However, significant difficulties arise with the anti-Samaritan hypothesis. The text describes Jerusalem and the temple's destruction by foreign invaders, affecting the southern tribes of Levi, Judah, and Benjamin. This suggests the enemy of these southern tribes also opposes Joseph, implying a united Israel facing the invader, which contradicts historical records of separate northern and southern kingdom invasions. Additionally, Joseph is depicted as righteous and blameless, characteristics not aligned with the northern kingdom's idolatrous reputation.
The text's consistent use of singular pronouns and verbs, along with the anthropomorphic description of Joseph's bones being crushed, indicates Joseph is an individual rather than a collective representation of the northern tribes. This Joseph, enduring future rather than past events, aligns with eschatological interpretations prevalent in Dead Sea Scrolls literature, which often anticipates a coming deliverance.
Joseph is portrayed as a future righteous ruler, calling out to God for deliverance, referencing Psalms that are traditionally messianic. For example, his cry in line 16 echoes Psalm 89:26, "He will cry to me, 'My father you, my God,'" marking him as a messianic figure, a suffering Messiah akin to those in Psalms 22 and 38.
The manuscript suggests Joseph's eventual resurgence and righteous reign, possibly implying resurrection, a belief attested in other Dead Sea Scrolls. This depiction aligns with the promised Josephite hero, the Messiah ben Joseph, a concept seen in Deuteronomy 33:17 and prophetic writings. Thus, 4Q372 presents a Joseph who, like the anticipated Messiah ben Joseph, suffers, is defeated, and foresees his rise to execute justice and righteousness, making it possibly the earliest post-biblical text to feature a suffering Josephite messiah.
4Q521 AND 11QMELCH
Two more Dead Sea Scrolls texts are worth mentioning for their potential references to a Joseph or Joshua Messiah, even though they do not provide a full portrait of Messiah ben Joseph. The first, 4Q521 (the Messianic Apocalypse), dating from the late 3rd or early 2nd century BC, speaks of a Messiah to whom the heavens and earth will listen (2.II.1). This Messiah will atone for the people of his generation (9.1.2), and during his time, the Lord will proclaim good news to the poor, heal the wounded, and raise the dead (2.II.12). Emile Puech proposes that a fragmentary letter in the text could be reconstructed as "br yosf," meaning "son of Joseph," suggesting a Josephite Messiah who atones not through animal sacrifice but, as in Isaiah 53 and Zechariah 12:10-13:1, through his own death.
The second text, 11QMelchizedek (11Q13), dating around 100 BC, describes the heavenly hero Melchizedek, who will comfort Zion, free people from iniquities, atone for the Sons of Light (ii.6, 8, 13, 25), and destroy Belial (i.13, 25). Melchizedek is identified as God or elohim, linking him to the divine council in Psalm 82 and the judge of the peoples in Psalm 7 (ii.10-11). He is also associated with the ETERNAL from Isaiah 61:2, reinterpreted as the year of Melchizedek’s favor (ii.9, 19). Furthermore, Melchizedek is connected to the suffering servant of Isaiah 52:7 and 61:2-3, and the prince/messiah of Daniel 9:25-26, suggesting that like these figures, Melchizedek might share a similar fate of suffering and death.
Another significant discovery, the Gabriel Revelation (Hazon Gabriel), published in 2007, is a text inscribed on stone dating to the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD. It narrates an apocalypse transmitted by the angel Gabriel, predicting a battle against Jerusalem (lines 13-14), righteousness prevailing on the third day (lines 19-21), and God shaking the heavens and earth (lines 24-26). The text mentions a messianic figure addressed as "My servant David," likely referring to a Davidic Messiah. Scholar Israel Knohl identifies a passage that reads, "My servant David, ask of Ephraim that he place the sign," suggesting a parallel to the Messiah son of Joseph mentioned in the Talmud. However, this interpretation is contested by other scholars, leaving the connection to a Josephite Messiah unproven but plausible.
Lastly, the discovery of the "Saint James ossuary" in 2002, bearing the inscription "James son of Joseph, brother of Jesus," sparked debate over its authenticity and interpretation. The names Jacob (James), Joseph, and Joshua (Jesus) were common in first-century Judea, particularly among the Zadokite priests, suggesting a hope for a coming ruler named Joseph or Joshua. This pattern may reflect a broader expectation of a Messiah from the line of Joseph or Joshua, as seen in other contemporary texts.
Summary of Chapter Six
Several Dead Sea Scrolls texts provide evidence of belief in a Josephite Messiah. 4QTestimonia (4Q175) is a polymessianic testimonium that presents four anticipated redeemer figures: a prophet like Moses, a king, a priest, and a Joshua hero, a son of Joseph. 4Q372 speaks of a figure named Joseph who, like Zechariah's pierced king, will suffer during a future attack on Jerusalem. In his death throes, he will cry out to God, his father, using Davidic psalms, to deliver him and predict his rising again in glory. 4Q521 presents an exalted Messiah who will atone for his generation and raise the dead; this figure is possibly a son of Joseph. 11QMelchizedek depicts a heavenly warrior identified with the "cut off" mashiah prince of Daniel 9 and with Isaiah's herald of good news, suffering servant, and mashiah of the spirit. Gabriel's Revelation introduces a Messiah figure whom some scholars assert is called Ephraim, destined to place a sign upon the earth. Finally, the "Saint James ossuary" reminds us that the prevalence of the names Joseph and Joshua in first-century Jerusalem reflects a significant interest in these two Ephraimite patriarchs among Jews of that era.
Chapter Seven - Messiah ben Joseph in the Targums
The Targums are ancient translations of the Hebrew scriptures into Aramaic, originating among the Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities of the Fertile Crescent. They span from the Assyrian empire period (c. 900-600 BC) well into the Islamic period (after AD 600). Early oral targums existed during Nehemiah's time in the fifth century BC (Nehemiah 8:8), and many were eventually written down and compiled. Different collections include the Babylonian targums to the Torah (Targum Onkelos) and the Prophets (Targum Jonathan), the Palestinian targums to the Torah (Targum Yerushalmi or Pseudo-Jonathan and Targum Neofiti), and the Prophets (fragmentary), among others. The dating of these texts is debated, with some, like Targum Yerushalmi, having input until the Islamic period, while others like Targum Onkelos are considered pre-Herodian. This chapter will examine key Targum passages.
The Targumic Tosefta to Zechariah 12:10 diverges from the standard Targum Jonathan. The Tosefta includes additional figures: Messiah bar Ephraim and Gog, absent in Zechariah and Targum Jonathan. This section presents a Messiah who engages in battle and is slain by Gog at Jerusalem's gate. This figure, Messiah bar Ephraim, is the first instance of a 'son of Joseph' Messiah in the Targums, aligning with Zechariah's imagery of a divinely appointed eschatological king from Joseph's tribes. This passage suggests that the interpretive tradition of Zechariah's text already included such a figure. Gog's role as the slayer parallels Ezekiel's prophecy (Ezekiel 38-39), reinforcing the link between the texts.
The Tosefta also shifts blame from the house of David and Jerusalemites for the Messiah's death to the nations, altering the original Hebrew text's meaning. The Tosefta's interpretation likely arose from the desire to exonerate the Judean establishment from guilt and the influence of early Christian interpretations. This version predates Christian times, suggesting that the concept of a suffering Messiah bar Ephraim was already present. Thus, the Tosefta reflects theological developments and responses to contemporary religious conflicts, emphasizing the complex transmission and interpretation of scriptural prophecies.
TARGUM YERUSHALMI ON EXODUS 40.9-11
The Targum Yerushalmi on Exodus 40:9–11 details the anointing of the tabernacle, altar, and laver, linking each object to Israel's three foremost tribes: Judah, Levi (Aaron), and Ephraim. This poly-messianic text ties the holy objects to representatives of these tribes, suggesting both an ancient and future anointing. The three latter-day figures are the King Messiah from Judah, Messiah bar Ephraim from Joshua, and Elijah the high priest. The passage resembles other Jewish apocalyptic literature, such as the "Testament of Naphtali" and the Dead Sea text 4Q175, which depict similar messianic figures. Messiah bar Ephraim, descended from Joshua, plays a significant role, even compared to Moses and Aaron. This figure's death and subsequent victory over Gog reconcile his dual roles as both a suffering and conquering Messiah. The dating of this text likely ranges from 30 BC to AD 30, with literary evidence supporting an early date and stylistic elements aligning with pre-medieval times.
Further examination of the Targum on Exodus 17:16 and the Song of Songs (4.5 and 7.4) provides additional context, highlighting the comparison of Messiah bar Ephraim to Moses and Aaron, signifying his importance in Israel's redemption. The Targum to Lamentations 4:21–22 introduces a unique title, "King Messiah of the House of Joseph of the House of Ephraim," emphasizing the dual messianic roles. The passage reconciles the seemingly contradictory traditions of Bar Ephraim as both vanquished and victor, with his death being integral to final deliverance.
Summary of Chapter Seven
In summary, the Targums consistently feature a Messiah from Joseph's tribe, typically referred to as Messiah bar Ephraim. This figure, alongside the King Messiah from Judah, plays a crucial role in the ultimate redemption of Israel, with variations in tradition portraying him as both a suffering and conquering hero. The combined traditions highlight a complex but coherent eschatological vision within Jewish apocalyptic thought.