1) The Background to Revelation
One Book with a Variety of Interpretations
The Book of Revelation, is arguably one of the most misunderstood by Gentiles throughout history. The range of interpretations is vast, almost like the distance between continents. The primary debate centers are centered around chapters 6 through 18, while chapters 1 through 5 are generally accepted without much controversy. Similarly, chapters 19 through 22, where Jesus returns and everything is resolved, are widely agreed upon.
However, the real question lies in how to interpret chapters 6 through 18. How are we to interpret all the symbolism we see in these chapters? To understand Revelation in its context, we will need to explore the different historical approaches to these chapters, including how first-century Jews would have understood them. Many people today, especially in the American context of "Left Behind" or Hal Lindsey’s Late Great Planet Earth, see Revelation as a spiritual battle between good and evil. We’ll take time to review the major interpretations throughout history, starting with how the original author and Jews in the first century would have viewed the book.
Revelation has become a book that people interpret in countless ways, often without any grounding in reality. But what should be the baseline for understanding it? The answer lies in historical studies—specifically, understanding what first-century Jews actually believed and how they would have interpreted the book at the time.
The Book of Revelation, more than any other New Testament book, absolutely requires a first-century Jewish apocalyptic context as the starting point for interpretation. Without that framework, it easily gets derailed into bizarre ideas and interpretations because of its strange symbols and visions. When you approach it from that first-century Jewish apocalyptic perspective, the book starts to make sense. Chapters 6 through 18, as we mentioned, broadly represent a recapitulation of the messianic woes—a time of tribulation expected before the Messiah's arrival.
For a long time, the interpretation of Revelation was anchored by the concept of the millennium, which shaped how people viewed prophecy in general. But that's no longer the case. Today, much of the interpretation is a blend of inaugurated eschatology, where different views of prophecy are merged. The traditional three categories—amillennialism, postmillennialism, and premillennialism—just don't capture the full picture anymore. That's why we must approach these topics differently to do the book justice.
To explore the variety of ways in which Revelation has been interpreted, check out this study by clicking here.
Jewish Apocalyptic Framework
In the general epistles of the New Testament, the writers often used eschatology—the study of end times—to encourage discipleship. They referenced key Jewish apocalyptic themes that were anticipated in the first century, such as the resurrection of the dead, the day of judgment, eternal life, the coming of the Messiah, and the kingdom of God. These were the motivating factors for calling their readers to live righteous lives. Notably, the apostles did not reinterpret the kingdom of God as a present reality; they maintained it as a future event.
Throughout the epistles, readers are urged to avoid sin, such as quarreling or sexual immorality, and to live in a way that pleases God—not just because it's good, but because the day of the Lord is approaching. Living in righteousness reflects confidence in God's promise to cleanse the earth of unrighteousness, fulfill the law and the prophets, and establish an everlasting kingdom. This perspective was deeply rooted in the Jewish apocalyptic expectations of that time.
The Jews developed a broad view of redemptive history by integrating the Torah, prophetic writings, and poetic texts into a grand narrative with overarching themes. Phrases like “the last day,” “the resurrection of the dead,” “the kingdom of God,” “Son of David,” “Gehenna,” “the Son of Man,” and “the Two Ages” became central, especially in the New Testament. These terms were often left undefined in the New Testament because first-century Jews approached the vast body of Jewish literature with an eye toward its broad themes and deeper meanings and this was commonly understood.
Their worldview was framed by the understanding that God created the heavens and the earth, with the heavens being physical and plural, where God sits enthroned at the highest point. He gave Adam authority over the earth at creation, but sin and moral autonomy led to a broken world. The prophetic writings emphasized the Day of the LORD—a literal future day when God would reverse the damage caused by sin. On that day, God would create a new heaven and a new earth, purging all wickedness and reigning gloriously from Zion, ushering in divine blessedness and eternal life. This "Day of the LORD" is a pivotal moment that divides redemptive history into two distinct ages: the current age, where God rules from the heavens with mercy, and the age to come, when He will judge the earth and restore it to its original design.
The Day of the LORD will be carried out by the Messiah, God’s chosen one. Although God could accomplish this by Himself, He chose to work through a human—specifically, a son of Adam, a son of David, and a son of Joseph. This is the ultimate trajectory of the current age.
This broad narrative also includes the belief that sin will continue to increase, reaching its peak just before the Day of the LORD, during a period when evil is personified in the figure of the Antichrist. This figure is the direct opposite of Christ, opposing God, rejecting the covenants, leading the world into sin, and persecuting the righteous. This period of intense evil, drawn from the book of Daniel, is understood to last approximately 3.5 years.
To avoid interpretive confusion, we need to understand what the Jews believed at the time Revelation was written and compare our reading of the book to those beliefs. How do we do this? By examining historical sources that reflect Jewish thought from the first century. While many of these sources are not considered “inspired scripture” by most of the Christian Church, they still provide valuable insights into Jewish beliefs during that period. Figure one below outlines the main themes of Jewish eschatology, including their worldview—how they understood the world around them. By exploring Jewish literature, we gain insight into their worldview, messianic expectations, ideas of atonement (sacrifice, justification), and more. Together, these themes form the Jewish apocalyptic worldview of the first century.
Figure 1.
Should we believe everything found in extra-biblical writings or historical sources? Absolutely not! Some of these texts contain fringe ideas that are quite strange. However, when we read the New Testament—especially the gospels and epistles—it’s important to realize that the themes within are amplified in the book of Revelation. In other words, whatever you find in the New Testament is magnified in Revelation.
In Jewish thought, the events of creation (like the creation, the fall, the flood and the Tower of Babel) laid the foundation for the covenants, which define the relationship between God and Israel and how God would use Israel to restore creation. The prophets, then, are seen as providing divine exposition on these covenants. By the time of the New Testament, Jews interpreted Jesus’ ministry, death, and resurrection in the context of this pre-existing narrative. The narrative itself does not change. This same narrative and its key themes are projected forward into the book of Revelation.
Rather than the New Testament merely highlighting sacrifice and mercy to the Gentiles—though this is present, it has often been misunderstood. What Jesus truly opposes is the pride, arrogance, and self-righteousness of the Jewish people. The focus is on how God will provide a greater sacrifice, bring vindication and justification on the Day of the Lord, and extend His mercy to the Gentiles. The belief that the narrative remains consistent throughout Scripture may seem straightforward, but Christian interpretive history has often strayed from this idea. Many claim that Jesus introduced something entirely new and radically different. However, if we say that Jesus changed the narrative and brought in new ideas, then when we apply these “new ideas” to the book of Revelation, we derail the entire storyline, taking it in a direction that diverges completely from where it was headed before Jesus' arrival.
Over the past 2,000 years, interpretations of the book of Revelation have evolved into four major camps, each diverging to some extent from the Jewish worldview of the second century. To learn more about these different interpretations, click here.
The more you understand Jewish beliefs and place Revelation within that context, the more meaningful and impactful the book becomes, and the greater the blessing you receive from it:
"Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear and who keep what is written in it, for the time is near." (Revelation 1:3, ESV)
You experience a deeper blessing from the text when it is understood, resonates with you, and you can apply its teachings.
Revelation is Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
The word "apocalypse" means “unveiling.” As Dr. Eli Lizorkin-Eyzenberg teaches, if you read Revelation and fail to see the message of hope hidden beneath the surface, you are reading it incorrectly. The book was intended to make things clearer, not more obscure, and was meant to be read in one sitting to grasp the larger narrative, rather than focusing narrowly on individual verses or chapters.
New Testament documents, like Revelation, operate within an already preexisting set of Jewish ideas. It's a longstanding tradition of Jewish spiritual writings to cite other books and to draw on them. The New Testament's genius and uniqueness can be seen in the merger of previously unmixed Jewish concepts and only rarely introducing something completely new.
Multilingual Context of Revelation: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek
In Greek, the word for "revelation" is apokalupsis, which simply means "to uncover" or "to unveil." Contrary to popular perception, it doesn’t imply catastrophe or the end of the world. The Hebrew equivalent, hitgalut, carries the same meaning—uncovering something hidden.
The oldest manuscripts of Revelation we have today are in Greek, but it’s likely that John, a multilingual Jew like many of his contemporaries, received his visions in Hebrew or Aramaic. The cultural context of ancient Israel was multilingual, with Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and even Latin in use. Recent scholarship has overturned the old belief that Hebrew was a dead language at the time of Jesus, revealing that Hebrew was spoken, written, and understood alongside Aramaic and Greek.
Some scholars, surprised by the deeply Jewish nature of Revelation, have speculated that it may have started as a purely Jewish work, with Jesus later added by Christian editors. However, there is no evidence to support this theory. The book's rich Jewish imagery, such as animals representing human characteristics, is entirely consistent with Jewish apocalyptic literature, and it seamlessly incorporates Jesus into this framework.
These connections highlight that Revelation belongs squarely within the Jewish apocalyptic tradition, offering a message of hope and unveiling hidden truths for its readers.
John, the Author of Revelation
"I, John, your brother and fellow partaker in the tribulation and kingdom and perseverance in Jesus, was on the island called Patmos on account of the word of God and the witness of Jesus." (Rev. 1:9)
Revelation is a multi-faced message with many voices. We can see how in Rev. 22 the voices alternate between the Almighty God (v. 13) and Jesus (v. 16). Other voices in that same chapter include "the angel" (or messenger), "the Spirit," and "the Bride." There are many “actors” who come and go throughout the letter. Now John identifies himself as the next speaker in this chorus of voices.
We see John describing himself being a partaker in tribulation (trials on earth) and a partaker in the kingdom. There will always be a dual reality of things happening on earth and things happening in the heavenly realm. This is phenomenon that Jesus followers are in tune to since they live in both realities simultaneously.
Apocalyptic thought will draw you to multiple realities of the past, present and future. It will look at where you are in the moment and things going on within the spiritual realm. Perseverance becomes a key idea. It is important that you as the reader make it through these times of tribulation.
The Many Voices of Revelation
It is essential to keep in mind, as we slowly read Revelation, that a variety of voices are being heard. There is God, John, Spirit, Jesus, various angels and archangels, the Bride, etc.
As in any complex composition, such a rich polyphony of heavenly sound will demand careful and attentive listening in order to clearly distinguish among the voices and appreciate both their choir-like message and the voice of the individual performers.
One great example of this is the entire chapter from Revelation 22:8-21. In these verses we see a lot of different voices speaking, one after the other. This is a polyphony of voices:
(John speaks to the angel) 8 I, John, am the one who heard and saw these things. And when I heard and saw them, I fell down to worship at the feet of the angel who showed me these things. 9 And he said to me, (angel speaks to John) "Do not do that; I am a fellow servant of yours and of your brothers the prophets, and of those who keep the words of this book. Worship God!".... (God / YHVH speaks) 12 "Behold, I am coming quickly, and My reward is with Me, to reward each one as his work deserves. 13 I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end… (Jesus speaks) 16 "I, Jesus, have sent My angel to testify to you of these things for the churches. I am the root and the descendant of David, the bright morning star." (Spirit speaks, Bride speaks) 17 The Spirit and the bride say, "Come." And let the one who hears say, "Come." And let the one who is thirsty come; let the one who desires, take the water of life without cost. (John?) 18 I testify to everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: if anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues that are written in this book; 19 and if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God will take away his part from the tree of life and from the holy city, which are written in this book. (YHVH or Jesus speaks) 20 He who testifies to these things says, "Yes, I am coming quickly." (Anonymous responder speaks) Amen. Come, Lord Jesus. 21 The grace of the Lord Jesus be with all. Amen.(Rev 22:8-13)
John Writes from the Island of Patmos During an Undetermined Time
We see that John is on the island of Patmos, and he is there because of the things he has been teaching about God and Jesus. John identifies the historical circumstances during which he saw the vision and wrote down the message.
While it would have been helpful to know the exact year John wrote the Book of Revelation, he only mentions his exile on the island of Patmos, a place where, according to tradition, the Roman government sent political prisoners. John himself was likely imprisoned for his bold witness about Jesus, exalting Him as king and ruler of all, a message that would not have gone unnoticed by Roman authorities. Rather than execute John and risk martyrdom fueling further support for his cause, exiling him to a remote island effectively silenced him, keeping him away from the people without turning him into a martyr.
Scholars suppose that John was on Patmos either during the reign of Emperor Domitian around 95 CE or possibly between 68-69 CE during the reign of Emperor Nero. The persecutions of the Christ-followers were frequent and intense around those dates. There are no certain or clear dates in the Book of Revelation.
Some scholars see during the time of Domitian as a possibility despite clear references to Nero in the numerology. This argument, says that Nero became the original “guy you love to hate” and represents everything about what is wrong with the Roman Empire. There is also strong evidence for during the time of Nero.
John’s Revelation is Experienced as He was “in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day”
I was in the Spirit on the Lord's Day... (Rev 1:10a)
This short remark has caused much disagreement and misunderstanding among the readers of Revelation. What is this Lord's day? There are three interpretive options here:
1) The first possibility is that "the Lord's day" could be a reference to the Sabbath. It would make sense to speak of God's day, the Sabbath (naw, shabbat), in this way. However, we never see "Lord's day" used to refer to the Sabbath anywhere else in Jewish literature. In addition, if the day of the week was the Sabbath as opposed to other days, it is not clear why this would be important. Why should Yohanan stress this particular time?
2) The second option (a traditional option) is that "the Lord's day" is "the day of his Resurrection" the first day of the Israelite week - Sunday. This is a popular Christian interpretation. That is why some English Bibles even capitalize "Day." This theory suffers similar problems as the first one. The first day of the week was never called "Lord's day" before this moment within Jewish Literature. If John is identifying a specific weekday in his message, he does not explain why. The theory of this day being Sunday seems to be a later development.
3) The third, far more likely option is that the "day of the Lord" refers to the "end-time day of reckoning and judgment" that the Hebrew Prophets often spoke about. The phrase "the Day of the LORD" (yom ADONAD) is used many times in the Hebrew Bible (Is. 2:12; 13:6-9; Ezek. 13:5, 30:3; Joel 1:15; 2:1-31; 3:14; Amos 5:18-20; Obad. 15; Zeph 1:7-14; Zech 14:1; Mal 4:5).
For example, Malachi 4:5-6 states:
"Behold, I [will] send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and awesome day of the Lord. He will turn the heart of fathers regarding [their] sons, and the heart of sons regarding [their] fathers, lest I come and strike the earth with a curse." (Malachi 4:5-6 / 3:23-24)
John is writing from a specific location (Patmos) during a particular moment in history. He is caught up, surrounded by the reality of "the Day of the LORD" (yom ADONAI). He is being shown something that is not a reflection of his time and his place.
The visions he records are rooted in the prophetic reality of the future day of God's triumph. Just as in the case of the Hebrew prophets, John was able to speak to his present from the dual perspective of the past - the covenant and the future - the consummation of the covenant and restoration of all things.
Why was Revelation Written?
The opening statement of the Book of Revelation sets the stage for its purpose:
"A revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show to his bond-servants, of things that must soon take place. And he made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, who testified to the word of God and to the testimony of Jesus Christ, even to all that he saw." (Revelation 1:1-2)
The introduction also tells us how the message was delivered: "He [God] made it known by sending his angel [or messenger]," and it identifies the recipient: "his servant John, who testified to the word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ, to everything he saw."
Later in the same chapter, John is in the Spirit when he suddenly hears a voice speaking from behind him.
I was in the Spirit on the Lord's Day when I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, 11 saying: "Write in a book what you see and send it to the seven churches--to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. (Rev 1:10)
From this verse, we can understand why Revelation was written. John was to write down what he sees and send it to the seven churches.
From verses 1-2, and 10, we can see that the purpose of Revelation is for John to see what soon must take place and he is to deliver the message of what he sees to the seven churches.
A Message to Real People: Reading Revelation as a Letter
The Book of Revelation is often seen through the lens of prophecy and future events. However, before applying it to contemporary struggles, we must first recognize that it was written as a letter to real people, facing real challenges in the first century. The early Christ-followers in Asia Minor received this message in the context of their lived experiences under Roman rule. By understanding the original audience, we unlock a deeper meaning that bridges the ancient and modern worlds.
The Book of Revelation is a letter to real people. Throughout history, Revelation has rightly remained a timeless message, often connected to contemporary struggles in the minds of readers from each successive generation. A Christian from any place and point in time has experienced trouble, persecution and troubles. Every generation has applied the book of Revelation to their situation and has related the book to their situation.
Consequently, the original audience to whom John wrote was lost in the shuffle. Before applying the contents of the Book to the "universal cosmic ecclesia, we must first understand it as early Christ-followers of Asia Minor would have understood it.
Only by first grasping the original message of any biblical text to its original audience can we responsibly apply it to another (contemporary) setting. That is to say that whatever interpretations of this heavenly message we may hold today, the message must also make sense to the original audience of John's day. This is an idea that is applicable to any book of the Bible. Context, context, context! When you grasp the context, and understand the original audience, the Bible will make more sense to us in modern times.
John to the seven churches that are in Asia." (Rev, 1:4a)
Traditional translations use the word "churches" here, but that is misleading. The Greek word means "assemblies" in this case, probably small groups that met in private homes. These gatherings of families and friends were not like the organized, structured and formal institutions known as churches today. In the Hellenistic context, many such groups functioned "collegia" as religious or ethnic associations, much like modern clubs, trade guilds, and professional groups.
Revelation was not written as a book but rather as a letter or collection of letters to specific, historical communities of this type (not churches in the modern sense). John wrote about real issues of relevance for each of these seven groups living in the Roman province of Asia.
At the same time, the genre is not purely epistolary but is also apocalyptic containing a large amount of prophecy, visions, and interactions with heavenly beings.
For many contemporary readers, it is common to think of prophecy as predictive. However, to an Israelite mind, prophecy was primarily a proclamation of previously known truth, a call to return to something forgotten (think Torah). The prophets represented people of God who spoke God’s word to the people based on the blessings and curses within the Torah. Most prophets issued rebukes painting the picture of how disastrous the future may look if Israel rebels against God. The aim of such warnings is they would not come true. They also gave much hope for blessing, peace, and prosperity if the Covenant stipulations are upheld by Israel.
The Book of Revelation confronts each of the seven communities with an alternative image of the world. Living in the great cities of the province of Asia, the letter's recipients would have been extremely familiar with powerful images of Roman imperial greatness, excellence, and dominion.
John's letter reveals an invisible reality. It turns out that the Kingdom of Israel's God is far more powerful than Rome.
In Roman cities, civic and religious architecture, iconography, statues, rituals, and festivals all served as impressive visual displays of Roman imperial power and the magnificent splendor of pagan worship.
The visual power of John's letter stands in opposition to that Roman propaganda in order to set the record straight in the minds of early (often former pagan) followers of the Jewish Christ.
In chapter 17, for example, John describes his vision of a woman.
At first, she sounds like the goddess Roma in all her glory:
"And the woman was clothed in purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and precious stones and pearls, holding a golden cup in her hand..." (Rev. 17:4)
At many temples throughout Asia Minor people worshipped this goddess as the personification of the majestic Roman civilization.
Yet John turns this image on its head, portraying the woman not as some noble figure but as a profane and murderous prostitute. Her wealth and splendor represent the evil gains of her disreputable trade.
"On her forehead was written a mysterious name: Babylon the Great, Mother of the Prostitutes and Abominations of the Earth. And I saw the woman drunk with the blood of the holy ones, and with the blood of Jesus' witnesses." (Rev. 17:5-6)
Here is the mind which has wisdom. The seven heads are seven mountains on which the woman sits, and they are seven kings... The waters which you saw where the harlot sits, are peoples and multitudes and nations and tongues... The woman whom you saw is the great city, which reigns over the kings of the earth". (Rev 17:9-18)
Revelation echoes the ideas of the 1st century but imbues them with radically new meanings.
The writing often presents ambiguity that leads the reader to contemplate connections between Babylon and Rome. This blending of ideas creates a sense of uncertainty, making one question whether the reference is to Rome, Babylon, or even Jerusalem.
John is not the only one who is sending this message to cities:
"Grace to you and peace, from the one who is (ὁ ὤν) and who was and who is coming..." (Rev. 1:4b)
The Greek expression ho ōn (ὁ ὤν) literally means "the one who is" or "the existing one." Its use here alludes to the divine Name revealed to Moses: "And God said to Moses, 'I am the Being One (ho ōn).'" (Exod. 3:14, LXX)
"I am the Being One" is the Greek translation of the Hebrew phrase ehyeh asher ehyeh—"I am who I am." This expression from Exodus 3:14 is directly linked to God's name, symbolizing His eternal existence across the past, present, and future, much like the greeting found in Revelation.
"Grace to you and peace, from the one who is, who was, and who is coming, and from the seven spirits before his throne, and from Jesus Christ, the faithful witness" (Rev. 1:4b-5a).
In this passage, not only is God himself (YHWH) is the author of this message Yohanan was given, he also tells us that Messiah is another party in the letter. But that is not all: There are also "seven spirits." This array of senders is intriguing because we may be seeing a non-systematized and early Jewish equivalent of the later Christian Trinity (albeit in a completely different order) - Father, Holy Spirit, and the Son.
Letters typically consist of a message, along with recipients and senders or authors. In some cases, secretaries or messengers may be involved, tasked with writing down or delivering the message. In this instance, the messenger was "John," or Yohanan in Hebrew. While we know the name, the exact identity of which John remains uncertain.
John (Yohanan) was a common Jewish name, but tradition points specifically to John the Apostle. This makes perfect sense since all seven communities addressed in the letter knew who he was and accepted his authority as a reliable messenger from God.
This tradition can be traced already to 2nd century leaders: Bishop Melito of Sardis (ca. 165 C.E.; in Eusebius' Church History, 4.26.2) and Irenaeus of Smyrna (ca. 180 C.E.; in his Against Heresies, 3.11.1, 4.20.11, 4.35.2). The case for Johannine authorship of Revelation ironically is stronger than that for the Gospel of John.
The Greek language of Revelation is simpler than the Greek of John's Gospel. It has let many scholars to say that John's Gospel and John's Apocalypse were not authored by the same person.
This may be so, but we must keep in mind that many writers in Roman antiquity used professional scribes, and among other explanations, this could be the reason that styles are different. John could have wrote the gospel from Ephesus, with a number of scribes available. Contrast to being on the island of Patmos, with no scribes available.
While the identities of the secretaries/messengers have some significance, they are not as important as the identity of the author/s and the content of the message itself. Whether John the Apostle wrote down these words or another Jewish Christ-follower with the same name did, the message remains absolutely the same.
Let's look at the recipients of the Revelation letter. A glance at the map reveals the logic of the order in which Revelation addresses the seven communities. Messengers carrying John's letter would likely arrive from Patmos directly to Ephesus, before continuing along the main Roman roads to other communities in Asia Minor.
One can almost imagine the movement from Patmos to Ephesus to Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and finally to Laodicea. The average distance between each of these cities city was about 30-45 miles or 75 kilometers.
John provided a general introduction (Rev. 1) as well as seven unique messages (letters within the letter) that act as more specific words for each community (Rev. 2-3). He then designed a kind of text intended to be read in seven different cities and from seven different perspectives. Although one can be almost sure that other assemblies were expected to listen in as well.
He then wove these different perspectives together into a single coherent message in the remainder of his scroll. Beginning with Chapter 4, the book addresses issues and circumstances shared by all Christ-following assemblies of entire Roman Asia. This harmonization of multiple voices and perspectives is a special feature of the Letter of Revelation.
Not all the known assemblies in Asia Minor were addressed by name. For example, the congregation at Colossae is well-known but not mentioned. The letter is tied to the number seven by intentional symbolism. Probably, mentioning other locations beyond the seven would take away from the symbolic nature of the message.
Revelation is a book rich with symbolism, prophecy, and vision, but at its core, it is a letter meant to encourage and challenge early believers in a real historical context. By first understanding the original message to its intended audience, we can responsibly and meaningfully apply its truths to our own lives today. In doing so, we honor the original intent of the text and allow it to speak powerfully to all generations.
Revelation 6-18 and The Messianic Woes
Chapter 6 begins what is called in Futurist schools of thought (closest modern day scholarly thinking to the First century Jewish Apocalyptic Worldview) The Great Tribulation. Within Jewish Tradition, The Great Tribulation is called The Messianic Woes. This is not because the Messiah does these things, but because these things precede the coming of the Messiah in glory. The idea of the Great Tribulation (Great Distress) comes out of Daniel 12, and Jesus cites it in Matthew 24. It gets mentioned a third time in Revelation 7.
The Messianic Woes pertain to the end of this age, and the events that will take place prior to the coming of Messiah and the Day of the LORD. The Messianic Woes are a period of eschatological (end times) distress and tribulation that, according to early Judaism, was to precede the coming of the Messiah. Characteristic features include apostasy, war, earthquakes, drought, famine, pestilence, familial strife and betrayal, cosmic signs, increasing wickedness, and the scarcity of truth and wisdom. Otherwise known in the rabbinic literature as the "birth pangs of the Messiah," these woes lead inexorably to the birth of the final state of blessedness.
The concept of messianic woes has OT roots (Isa. 13:6–8; 26:16–19; Jer. 13:21; Mic. 5:2–4 [MT 1–3]; 7:1–6), more generally in OT depictions of the trauma associated with the day of the Lord (e.g., Joel 1:15–2:11; 2:30–31 [3:3–4]; Zeph. 1:14–18; esp. Dan. 12:1–3). The messianic woes pattern finds fuller development in the OT Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (These are the historical books and give us insight on what Jews believed during the first century CE: 4 Ezra 5:1–13; 2 Apoc. Bar. 25–32; Jub. 23:13–25; Apoc. Abr. 30:4–8; T. Mos. 8–9), the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QH 3:3–18), the NT, and in patristic (Did. 16:3–6; Herm. Vis. 4.1–2; Barn. 4:3–5) and rabbinic (m. Soṭa 9:15; b. Sanh. 97a–98b; Šabb. 118a; Pesaḥ. 118a; Ketub. 111a) literature.
The Synoptic (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) eschatological discourse (Matt. 24; Mark 13; Luke 21) offers a striking NT parallel to the Jewish notion of messianic woes (cf. the “beginning of birth pangs,” Matt. 24:8; Mark 13:8), as do the visions of the seven seals, trumpets, and bowls (Rev. 6–16). Numerous other NT texts may also share this same background (e.g., Matt. 10:17–23, 34–36; Rom. 8:17–18; 2 Cor. 4:16–17; 1 Thess. 3:3–5).
Revelation is a direct reflection of the Jewish concept of the Messianic Woes. Why? Because it’s the same idea! Jesus and the apostles were Jews, and when they spoke of the Day of the Lord, the New Heavens and New Earth, the Resurrection of the Dead, the Kingdom of God, the Son of David, Messianic Divinity, Messianic Suffering, the Antichrist, Cosmology, Angelology, Divine Sovereignty, Human Depravity, Sacrifice, Forgiveness, Justification, and Repentance, they didn’t redefine these terms—they upheld the Jewish understanding. When they spoke of these concepts, they preached them as truths to respond to.
The focus isn’t on how we interpret these topics, but how we respond to them. The Day of the Lord and the Kingdom of God are at hand! The Messiah is coming with His winnowing fork, ready to gather the chaff and throw it into the fire (Matthew 3:12). There was no debate about understanding this; those with wisdom trembled in response. But others—those who were hard-hearted, stubborn, unrepentant, and prideful—did not. Some sought to escape the coming wrath:
“You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come?” (Matthew 3:7, ESV Bible)
The real issue isn’t comprehension—it’s about how you respond, how you escape the coming wrath, and how you stand blameless and righteous before God on the last day.
Daniel Chapter 7 and It’s Impact on Jewish Thought
Daniel 7 has arguably had a more profound impact on Jewish interpretation of scripture than any other Old Testament passage. It serves as the central lens through which they developed much of their apocalyptic framework and understanding of the future Day of the Lord. Alongside Daniel 7, other key visionary books—such as Zechariah, the final chapters of Isaiah, and the conclusion of Ezekiel—also shaped Jewish thought leading into the first century. The pattern established in Daniel 7 is the same one we see echoed in intertestamental writings, in Matthew 24, and ultimately in Revelation.
7 After this I saw in the night visions, and behold, a fourth beast, terrifying and dreadful and exceedingly strong. It had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces and stamped what was left with its feet. It was different from all the beasts that were before it, and it had ten horns. 8 I considered the horns, and behold, there came up among them another horn, a little one, before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots. And behold, in this horn were eyes like the eyes of a man, and aa mouth speaking great things. 9 “As I looked, thrones were placed, and the Ancient of Days took his seat; his clothing was white as snow, and the hair of his head like pure wool; his throne was fiery flames; its wheels were burning fire. 10 A stream of fire issued and came out from before him; a thousand thousands served him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him; the court sat in judgment, and the books were opened. 11 “I looked then because of the sound of the great words that the horn was speaking. And as I looked, the beast was killed, and its body destroyed and given over to be burned with fire. 12 As for the rest of the beasts, their dominion was taken away, but their lives were prolonged for a season and a time. (Daniel 7:7-12, ESV Bible)
As we will later observe, the imagery in Revelation mirrors that of Daniel 7, particularly concerning the horns and the beast. In Daniel 7:10, it says "the scrolls were opened." The term "book" is a modern translation, but at the time of writing, there were no codices—only scrolls. So, what are these scrolls? They are the scrolls of decreed judgment. Against whom? The beast with the boastful horns, speaking great things. Daniel 7 continues:
13 I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. 14 And to him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed. (Daniel 13-14, ESV Bible)
In Daniel 7:14, we witness the emergence of the phrase “Kingdom of God,” a concept that developed during the late Second Temple period. Up until this point in the chapter, the narrative builds in intensity until the final beast is introduced. This figure, often seen as an antichrist, is described as the boastful horn. Then, a throne is set up in the heavens, where scrolls are opened and judgment is executed upon the antichrist. At this moment, one like a Son of Man is brought into the presence of the LORD and is granted all power, authority, and dominion over the earth.
In summary, we see the escalation of human sin, divine judgment from heaven, and the entrusting of an everlasting dominion to a messianic figure, in direct contrast to the antichrist. This is what Daniel envisions, and in verse 25, an angel interprets the vision for him:
25 He shall speak words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High, and shall think to change the times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand for a time, times, and half a time. (Daniel 7:25, ESV Bible)
In Hebrew “time” is referred to as years, so this is where we get 3.5 years, or 42 months, or 1260 days. The same period of time over and over gets repeated again in the book of Revelation. In Chapter 13 of Revelation we will see the saints given into the hands of the best for a time, times, and half a time. If Jews in the first century were anything, they were literalist in how they interpreted the covenants, the prophets, and the future. Words mean what they mean. This is “rational literalism.” Of course you have symbols, and metaphors, pectic language, and figures of speech, but they mean what the rest of the words mean.
As reader’s of apocalyptic literature, if we start “reading in” to regular words, trying to make them more complicated than they are, it will make us schizophrenic. Daniel 7 continues:
26 But the court shall sit in judgment, and his dominion shall be taken away, to be consumed and destroyed to the end. 27 And the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High; his kingdom shall be an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey him.’ (Daniel 7:26-27, ESV Bible)
We see a similar description in Revelation 11:15. The kingdom of the world will become the kingdom of our LORD and Christ.
This is the central point of Revelation chapters 4 and 5. These chapters are not a generic depiction of what happens in heaven for eternity. To a first-century Jew, deeply familiar with Daniel 7, when John describes being taken up to see “what must take place after this,” they would immediately think of Daniel 7. When someone is seated on a throne, a scroll is opened, and judgment follows, it evokes the imagery of Daniel 7. Revelation 4 and 5 offer a glimpse into what is happening in heaven just before the judgment of the final 3.5 years and the destruction of the antichrist. Revelation 6-18 then goes on to describe what those last 3.5 years will be like.
Parallels Between Daniel, Revelation, Matthew 24 and 2 Thessalonians
Matthew 24 says the same thing as Daniel 7 and we see parallels in 2 Ezra:
Now concerning the signs: lo, the days are coming when those who inhabit the earth shall be seized with great terror, and the way of truth shall be hidden, and the land shall be barren of faith. 2 Unrighteousness shall be increased beyond what you yourself see, and beyond what you heard of formerly. 3 And the land that you now see ruling shall be a trackless waste, and people shall see it desolate... 4 and the sun shall suddenly begin to shine at night, and the moon during the day. 5 Blood shall drip from wood, and the stone shall utter its voice; the peoples shall be troubled, and the stars shall fall... 10 and [wisdom] shall be sought by many but shall not be found, and unrighteousness and unrestraint shall increase on earth. 11 One country shall ask its neighbor, 'Has righteousness, or anyone who does right, passed through you?' And it will answer, 'No.' (NRSV 2 Esdras 5:1-11)
2 Thessalonians 2 highlights the common understanding of redemptive history in the first century. In this passage, we see the "germ" of what began to unfold in the early church. This development didn’t occur within mainstream Judaism or Israel but rather on the fringes, particularly within the diaspora. It reflects the early church’s experience, and tradition suggests it started with Simon Magnus (Simon the sorcerer from Acts 8), who is credited with initiating the Gnostic tradition. By the 3rd and 4th centuries, Gnosticism began to influence Christianity. They took the Jewish narrative and spiritualized it, a shift that later influenced the Idealist interpretation of Revelation.
Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2 is addressing how people are questioning the Jewish narrative:
Now concerning the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we ask you, brothers, ?not to be quickly shaken in mind or alarmed, either by a spirit [revelation] or a spoken word, or a letter seeming to be from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord has come [spiritually]. 3 Let no one deceive you in any way. For that day will not come [unless the standard Jewish narrative happens…], unless the rebellion comes first, and the man of lawlessness is revealed, the son of destruction, 4 who opposes and exalts himself against every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, proclaiming himself to be God. 5 Do you not remember that when I was still with you I told you these things? (ESV 2 Thess 2:1-5)
Paul addresses the misconceptions people often hold about the Day of the Lord, specifically the misunderstanding of Jewish eschatology. When the antichrist takes his seat in the Temple of God, it echoes Daniel 9 and the abomination that causes desolation.
What’s particularly striking is Paul’s reminder in verse 5: “Do you not remember that when I was still with you, I told you these things?” In Acts 17, Paul was with the Thessalonian church for only three weeks, yet he covered these deep eschatological topics. Today, you can attend many modern churches for years and never hear about this, yet Paul was teaching it in just three weeks! Why? Because it is not a fringe idea or doctrine, but part of the broader worldview of Jews at that time.
We believe in the mercy of God, revealed through the cross, so that when we stand before Him at His return, we will be declared vindicated, justified, and acquitted on that day. We will stand blameless at His appearing, spared from the lake of fire, and instead, inherit eternal life and the resurrection of the dead in a body that never dies. This is the message Paul is trying to help people grasp!
In those three weeks, Paul warned them that their faith would be tested during the coming 3.5 years of the antichrist. This is always imminent! The vision of the prophets, pointing to this reality, is ever-present with God, who transcends time. The prophecy is always at hand, always urgent, and just around the corner. Whether it’s 500 years or 2,000 years, the timing doesn’t matter. To us—and to God—it is always near, as urgent as our hearts can grasp. We should long for the Lord’s return and desire it to come quickly! We are weary of the troubles and problems of this world. How long, O Lord, until this life comes to its end?
This was central to the Jewish narrative of the time, instilling a sense of watchfulness and urgency within us. Eternal life and eternal damnation are real. We escape damnation because God, in His mercy, accepted the death of His Son as a sacrifice. If we believe in this and stand before Him on that day, it will be on this basis that our sins are forgiven. Yet, this truth is not always easy to hold onto—it can quickly fade if we do not daily consecrate ourselves to it.
The Didache and Early Christian Eschatology: Understanding Revelation Through a Jewish Lens
We can examine historical sources to understand what Jews believed leading up to and during the first century, the time of the New Testament writings. But what about after the gospels and epistles were written? What did they believe then? The Didache is a unique document, as it is the earliest text we have from that period following the New Testament. The Didache, known as "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles to the Gentiles," holds a special place in early Christian history. Many in the second century regarded it as scripture, though it did not make it into the final canon of the Bible. More than just a church policy manual, it served as a catechism for new Gentile believers. Its distinctly Jewish tone is so strong that it seems almost out of place in modern Christianity. Written around the 70s or 80s CE, the Didache frequently quotes from the Gospel of Matthew, leading many scholars to believe that both texts originated from the same community. Its 16th chapter offers a clear view of what early Christians believed about the future:
16. "Watch" over your life: do not let your lamps go out, and do not be unprepared, but be ready, for you do not know the hour when our Lord is coming. Gather together frequently, seeking the things that benefit your souls, for all the time you have believed will be of no use to you if you are not found perfect in the last time. For in the last days the false prophets and corrupters will abound, and the sheep will be turned into wolves, and love will be turned into hate. For as lawlessness increases, they will hate and persecute and betray one another. And then the deceiver of the world will appear as a son of God and "will perform signs and wonders," and the earth will be delivered into his hands, and he will commit abominations the likes of which have never happened before. Then all humankind will come to the fiery test, and "many will fall away" and perish; but "those who endure" in their faith "will be saved" by the accursed one himself. And "then there will appear the signs of the truth: first the sign of an opening in heaven, then the sign of the sound of a trumpet, and third, the resurrection of the dead-but not of all; rather, as it has been said, "The Lord will come, and all his saints with him." Then the world "will see the Lord coming upon the clouds of heaven." -- M. W. Holmes, The Apostolic Fathers (Baker, 1999), 267-69
If this is what the Didache teaches about the future, it suggests that we should interpret Revelation in the same way. One particularly striking statement from the Didache is: “for all the time you have believed will be of no use to you if you are not found perfect in the last time.” This raises an important question: what good is it to debate and argue over theology if we are not found blameless before God on the Day of Judgment?
The Didache mirrors the Messianic Woes found in Daniel 7, Matthew 24, and other apocalyptic texts. This is the lens through which John would have understood his revelation—rooted in the standard Jewish context of his time.
The Clearest View Through a Dim Mirror
We do not fully see or understand the future and what God will be doing—it’s often compared to looking through a dim mirror. In 1 Corinthians 13:12, Paul uses this metaphor to illustrate our limited understanding of spiritual truths and the future:
"For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I have been fully known." (ESV)
The book of Revelation provides the clearest picture of how this fits into the context of the covenants and the prophets. What God is doing now, He will continue to do in the final 3.5 years before the Lord’s return. At present, He is extending mercy to sinners ((2 Pet. 3:9; 1 Tim. 1:15) > Rev. 9:20; 16:9 ):
"The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance." (2 Peter 3:9, ESV)
God’s actions are not random or generic; they are intentional—"to the Jew first and also to the Gentile." He is not only the God of the Jews and Israel, but also the God of the Gentiles. This is why we, as Christians, believe and follow Jesus. It’s also the reason we do missions, carrying a heart for the nations, desiring that all repent, come to the knowledge of salvation, and be saved from the wrath to come. This is what God is doing now, and it will be the same in the final 3.5 years. In Revelation 9 and 16, we see God’s judgments—both then and now—used as acts of mercy, aimed at bringing people to repentance and salvation.
As parents, we discipline our children because we love them and want to guide them toward the right path. Similarly, the messianic woes and the Great Tribulation are about God urging people to repent. He extends His mercy even to the Gentiles, fulfilling Paul’s words in Romans 11 about the fullness of the Gentiles. This fullness brings the nations in before the King returns to Zion (Rom. 11:25; Matt. 28:19) > Rev. 5:9; 7:9; 14:6; 15:4 ).
Revelation Trains us in Discipleship and Prepares Us for Potential Martydom
What should we do with Revelation chapters 6-18? First, we commit ourselves to extending God's mercy to all peoples and nations. Secondly, the messianic woes serve as a form of discipleship training. The Book of Revelation speaks extensively about martyrdom (cf. Matt. 24:13; Luke 14:26–33; Rev. 13:10; 14:12), which may be one reason it is not frequently read in churches. Yet, martyrdom represents the ultimate example of what it means to follow Jesus:
Then Jesus told his disciples, 'If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me.' (Matthew 16:24)
To a first-century Jew, the cross symbolized martyrdom. It was the method the Romans used to execute rebellious Jews. Luke 14 captures the essence of the challenge presented in the Book of Revelation:
26 If anyone comes to me and does not hate his own father and mother and wife and children and brothers and sisters, yes, and even his own life, he cannot be my disciple. 27 Whoever does not bear his own cross and come after me cannot be my disciple. 28 For which of you, desiring to build a tower, does not first sit down and count the cost, whether he has enough to complete it? 29 Otherwise, when he has laid a foundation and is not able to finish, all who see it begin to mock him, 30 saying, ‘This man began to build and was not able to finish.’ 31 Or what king, going out to encounter another king in war, will not sit down first and deliberate whether he is able with ten thousand to meet him who comes against him with twenty thousand? 32 And if not, while the other is yet a great way off, he sends a delegation and asks for terms of peace. 33 So therefore, any one of you who does not renounce all that he has cannot be my disciple. (Luke 14:26-33, ESV Bible)
The Great Tribulation, or the Messianic Woes, brings us face-to-face with the reality of martyrdom. Each of us has our own cross to bear, our own path that may lead to sacrifice in one form or another. If we’re not willing to embrace that now, how can we expect to embrace it when the time comes? The key is understanding the purpose—it's about the hope that lies beyond martyrdom: the eternal weight of glory, which far outweighs all the present sufferings of this life:
For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us. (Romans 8:18)
In Revelation 12 we see the power of living for eternal glory:
And I heard a loud voice in heaven, saying, “Now the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Christ have come, for the accuser of our brothers has been thrown down, who accuses them day and night before our God. And they have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for they loved not their lives even unto death. (Revelation 12:10-11, ESV Bible)
The martyrs could face death because they knew what was coming. We know Jesus is coming again, and we believe in the resurrection of the dead because Jesus, as the firstfruits of the resurrection, was raised. Our faith is rooted in what God has already done, and we trust that He will do it again. It’s the vision of what is to come in Revelation 19-22 that gives us the strength to embrace martyrdom. When we accept this reality, we find encouragement and blessing in it.
Why do we worry so much about the struggles and challenges of this life? While there are temporal blessings in the world, this life isn’t all it’s made out to be. We fear missing out on something—on happiness, success, or the “American dream.”
This is why, in 1 Corinthians 7, Paul expresses his preference for singleness, wishing that others could be like him—unmarried and fully devoted to the Lord. He emphasizes that singleness allows for undivided attention to God, whereas marriage requires a focus on one’s spouse. Paul’s point is clear: removing the distractions of this life enables us to focus more fully on God. However, he also acknowledges that both singleness and marriage are gifts from God, and not everyone is called to the same path. Each person should follow the path that best fosters their relationship with God.
The Book of Revelation provides us with the vision and strength to embrace martyrdom and to be fully dedicated to the Lord and His mission. Martyrdom, when done in love, becomes the ultimate expression of God’s love—echoing what He did through Jesus on the cross. In this age, God continues to show mercy, and at the end of the age, He will give one final testimony of mercy.
As martyrdom increases, so do God’s judgments. The final judgments are directly connected to the martyrdoms. This is echoed by the martyrs crying out at the altar in Revelation:
“When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God and for the witness they had borne. They cried out with a loud voice, 'O Sovereign Lord, holy and true, how long before you will judge and avenge our blood on those who dwell on the earth?'” (Revelation 6:9-10, ESV)
What’s the timing indicator? It’s until the fullness of the martyrdoms and the completion of God’s testimony of mercy. While we are familiar with the concept of the fullness of the Gentiles preceding the Second Coming, Revelation takes this a step further by highlighting the fullness of the martyrdoms. We see this in Revelation 16:6-7:
"For they have shed the blood of saints and prophets, and you have given them blood to drink. It is what they deserve!” And I heard the altar saying, 'Yes, Lord God the Almighty, true and just are your judgments!'"(Revelation 16:6-7, ESV)
“Rejoice over her, O heaven, and you saints and apostles and prophets, for God has given judgment for you against her!” (Revelation 18:20, ESV)
“Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to our God, for his judgments are true and just; for he has judged the great prostitute who corrupted the earth with her immorality, and has avenged on her the blood of his servants.” (Revelation 19:1-2, ESV)
We observe the pattern of martyrdom and judgment. Throughout history, there has been martyrdom, but the intensity will increase, culminating in a final wave of martyrdom that many of us will likely witness or experience. If we are discipled in this reality, we will be prepared, ready to give testimony. The fullness of martyrdom will be one of the key catalysts for Jesus’ return.
John Harrigan hypothesizes that one reason for the delay in the Second Coming is the church’s rejection of martyrdom, beginning in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE. Because the church lacks a Jewish apocalyptic theology that embraces martyrdom, the delay continues. Our reluctance to accept martyrdom is contributing to the delay of Jesus’ return.
Jewish Symbolism in Revelation: Animals and Nations
In the 1st Book of Enoch (2nd century BCE), the seer falls asleep and dreams of Israel’s history, but the characters in his vision are represented by animals instead of people. The great leaders and kings of Israel appear as rams, while the leaders are referred to as "shepherds of the sheep." God Himself is called the "Lord of the sheep."
“And I saw till a throne was erected in the pleasant land, and the Lord of the sheep sat upon it, and another took the sealed books and opened them before the Lord of the sheep.” (1 Enoch 90:20)
Does this vision sound familiar? In this scene from Enoch, "the other" next to the Lord of the sheep opens the sealed scroll. Similarly, in Revelation, the only one worthy to open the scroll with seven seals is an unusual-looking Lamb—one that had been slain.
The Lamb in Revelation represents someone, and the readers are expected to discern who that Lamb is.
"And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns... And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all became white bulls; and the first among them became a lamb, and that lamb became a great animal with great black horns on its head, and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over it and over all the oxen. And I slept in their midst: and I awoke and saw everything. This is the vision which I saw while I slept..." (1 Enoch 90:37-40)
The imagery and symbols in John’s visions, like those in Enoch, would have been familiar to the Jewish audience of the time. These literary techniques are characteristic of the apocalyptic genre, which flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
The Mark of the Beast and Jewish Symbolism
Apocalyptic writings often use vivid imagery, symbols, and cultural or linguistic codes that make perfect sense to insiders but are puzzling to outsiders. The imagery of the Beast and its number in Revelation is a prime example of this insider knowledge.
15 ...as many as do not worship the image of the beast to be killed. 16 And he causes all, the small and the great, and the rich and the poor, and the free men and the slaves, to be given a mark on their right hand or on their forehead, 17 ... no one will be able to buy or to sell, except the one who has the mark... 18 Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for the number is that of a man; and his number is six hundred and sixty-six. (Rev 13:15-18 NASB)
The idea of the terrible Beast follows the apocalyptical tradition of animals being representations of gentile nations that rebel against Israel's God as represented by their kings. The 666 is a Gematria, a numeric code meant to help people to calculate and identify whom John is really writing about. The basic idea is that each letter of the alphabet stands for a particular number. Some use of Gematria is present in the Bible.
The "mark of the beast" (whatever form or shape it was to take) was to be placed on the head and on the hand, according to Revelation. To a Jewish audience, such placement sounds very familiar and would make perfect symbolic sense.
Remember John is writing from jail on the island of Patmos. He is essentially writing pro-Jewish, anti-Roman propaganda. His letters will likely be intercepted by the Romans. He is writing in a way where the insiders will understand the meaning.
In one of the passages recited daily by Jews devotionally since antiquity, Israelites were commanded to place God's words on themselves, "to bind them as a sign on your hand" and wear them "as frontals on your forehead" between the eyes (Deut. 6:8).
Revelation never says the mark of the beast is 666. The number 666 is the number of the beast. The text does not tell us what the mark of the beast is. What we do know is that it is supposed to go on the forehead and on the hand. This is the same place that the Jewish prayer gear is to be placed. Tefillin is made of leather to remind you of the sacrifices. It is placed on the left hand because it is the closest to the heart. The phylacteries on the head symbolize your thoughts. Together they demonstrate that the word of God should control your thought processes and what you do.
Whatever the mark of the beast is, it is probably not about a chip going into the skin somewhere. It is probably about anything at all that will replace the word of God that controls your mind and what you do.
666 and Gematria: Unraveling the Mystery of the Beast
The name "Nero Caesar" spelled in Hebrew (neron gesar) adds up to 666. Of course, the names of other historical people could match the same numeric value. But curiously some later Greek manuscripts of Revelation feature the number 616 instead of 666. Was this an error or intentional?
In the Gospel of Matthew, when Matthew claims there is three periods of 14 generations when speaking about the genealogy of Jesus, he presents Jesus as a Davidic King. The name David has a numeric value of 14. As a side note, Gospels are typically anonymous. Church history would later name them after people.
The number was adjusted to line up with the Latin spelling of Nero's name - NERO CAESAR. This would not work with other proposed names that match the 666 and 616. The identity of who 666 stands for was known to some scribes who intentionally adjusted the number for symbolism to makes sense in Latin.
In Jewish circles this technique is called Gematria (A=1, B=2, C=3...), a literary device often associated with mysticism, and secret hits used on purpose to veil the meaning.
One example of the many instances of Gematria is found in the writings of Rabbi David Kimchi (12th century), who believed that the Messiah’s actual name is Menachem. He based this belief on the Gematria of the Hebrew word tzemach(צמח), meaning "branch," which is used to describe the Messiah in Zechariah 3:8. The numerical value of tzemach(צ=90, מ=40, ח=8) is 138.
Menachem (מנחם), meaning "comforter," is another name for the Messiah mentioned in Lamentations 1:16 and discussed in the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 98b. Menachem (מ=40, נ=50, ח=8, מ=40) also adds up to 138. Based on this Gematria, Rabbi Kimchi concluded that the "Branch" (the Messiah in Zechariah) and "Menachem" (the Messiah in Lamentations) refer to the same person. While tzemach is not a common name, Menachem is a widely used name in Jewish tradition.
Jews are not alone in using numbers to represent letters and spell out names they wanted to conceal. In the city of Pompeii (Italy), destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 CE archaeologists uncovered a curious inscription - "I love her whose number is 545"
A lover decided to proclaim affection publicly but encoded the name numerically just like in Revelation. Perhaps this was a forbidden love or an affair. The persons involved in this relationship would of course know the meaning of 545, but others would be left guessing since technically many names can be correlated to the number.
Numerology and The Seven Blessings in Revelation
The word “prophecy” is used in the biblical way and not in a modern way, that indicates the telling of the future. Biblically speaking, although a future event is possible, prophecy is more about prophets speaking the words of God to people in their situation regarding what they must do. The text of Revelation has an intentionally crafted and nuanced literary structure, which is characteristic of the Jewish apocalyptic tradition. Writings belonging to this genre often combine the various modes of letter, prophecy, and poetry.
Already in the third verse of Revelation, we encounter the first blessing of a carefully composed series of seven that will be interspersed through the letter.
In verse 3, we encounter the first of seven "blessings" (brachot) or, perhaps more fittingly, ashrei statements, which are woven throughout the book of Revelation. While it is still early in our study to fully grasp the rhythmic pattern of John's writing, these blessings serve as key literary devices that structure and convey his vision. Even at this stage, we can begin to recognize part of the pattern emerging.
Seven is a key number in the biblical Hebrew tradition. It appears in the very beginning as the very culmination of God's creation, God's rest. John is very fond of it and uses it throughout the Book of Revelation. There are seven assemblies, seven lamps, seven seals, seven trumpets, and seven bowls of judgment.
The Messiah tile is used seven times (1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 11.15, 12.10, 20.4, 20.6). John announces Messiah's coming seven times (2:5, 2:16, 3:21, 16:15, 22:6, 22:12, 22:20). There are seven "amens" in the book (1:6, 1:7, 3:14, 5:14, 7:12, 19:4, 22:20), The phrase "the one who sits on the throne" is also used seven times (4:9, 5:1, 5:7, 5:13, 6:16, 7:15, 21:5).
The name Ἰησοῦς (Iesus) – Jesus/Yeshua – appears 14 times (2x7) in the Greek text, emphasizing not just the significance of the number seven, but its multiples as well. This aligns with the "seven sevens" and "seventy sevens" found in Daniel (9:24-25) and other instances, such as the seven weeks leading up to the feast of Shavuot (Pentecost).
Another example comes from modern Jewish practice, where it is customary for many Jews to give financial gifts in multiples of 18. The reason for this tradition lies in the numerical value of the Hebrew word for "life" (chai, חי), which is 18 (8 for ח and 10 for י). As a result, gifts are often given in amounts like 36, 54, 72, 90, or 108, symbolizing life and good fortune. This is a modern practice that highlights how Jews connect ideas to numbers.
In Jewish writings, seven refers to the exact numeric/mathematical value of something, but at other times it seems to be idiomatic and symbolic.
Consider these passages:
"If Cain is avenged sevenfold, then Lamech seventy-sevenfold." (Gen. 4:24)
"Peter said to him: Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me and I forgive him? Up to seven times? Jesus said to him: I do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven. (Matt. 18:21-22)
We understand here is not the concrete number, but you forgive and forgive and forget. In the ancient Hebrew/Jewish tradition, the number seven conceptually represents completion or perfection, the idea of wholeness connected to God himself.
The meaning of the number seven can be literal or symbolic (it is not always easy to tell). Still, it is obvious to most readers that the number seven appears throughout the book very intentionally.
Jewish Chiasms
Beyond its symbolic meaning, the number seven also shapes the very structure of Revelation’s composition. To fully appreciate the literary framework that John employs, we must recognize the techniques commonly found in Jewish literature. Now, let’s explore how the first of the Seven Blessings connects with the remaining six. Scholars have long observed a specific literary pattern, known as "chiastic" structure, named after the Greek letter X (chi), which is widely used throughout the Bible.
The letter visually represents "crossing" or diagonal movement. Essentially this is the way Semitic thought patterns came to be represented in literary studies.
Ancient Jewish poetry is based largely on parallelism, repetition, and analogy. Typically, the second line or idea of a pair will restate or echo the content of the first line, often extending, elaborating, or clarifying the sense.
The chiastic structure represents one way of doing this. Key words, terms, or thoughts are repeated within the literary unit in a parallel fashion and in a particular order. The author first moves "forward" - say, from statement A1 to B1, from B1 to C1, and from C1 to D1.
Then he suddenly switches gears and moves "backwards," following the same order but in reverse (D2 > C2 > B2 > A2). This creates a structural parallel built into the text itself. There are literally thousands of chiasms within the Bible.
Where the chiasm points or dead-ends, that is the core of the message. This is the function of chiasm. It is a literary device that highlights the most important thing within the text.
The Chiastic Structure of the Seven Blessings
Parallelism typically relies on pairs, but John uniquely employs the number seven. The first blessing (Revelation 1:3) stands apart from the chiastic structure that follows it, functioning like a maftir—a summary statement found in Torah readings. Its purpose is to set the stage and summarize the remaining six blessings, which are organized in a chiastic pattern.
"Blessed is the one who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy and observe the things written in it; for the time is near." (Revelation 1:3)
The "blessings" are scattered across the entire message. The sevenfold structure becomes clear only after it is discovered in its entirety. Viewed in isolation, however, the "blessings" may seem unconnected.
Blessings and Beatitudes: Parallels in Jewish Literature
In the Jewish Greek of Revelation and the Gospels, makarios is the equivalent of the Hebrew word ashrei (אַשְׁרֵי), meaning "blessed" in the sense of being "fortunate," or more specifically, "joyous" and "happy." This term conveys a passive idea, referring to someone who is on the receiving end of divine favor. It is frequently used in the book of Psalms, which even begins with this word:
"How blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked" (Psalm 1:1).
The Qumran Beatitudes from Scroll 40525.
[Blessed is he who walks] with a pure heart and who does not slander with his tongue. Blessed are those who hold fast to her [i.e., wisdom's] laws and do not hold to the ways of evil. Bless[ed] are those who find joy in her and do not overflow with the ways of folly. Blessed are those who ask for her with clean hands and do not seek her with a deceitful [heart]. Blessed is the man who grasps hold of wisdom and walks in the Torah of the Most High [God].
If this passage from Qumran (the Dead Sea Scrolls) sounds familiar, you may have recognized the close similarities with the famous "Sermon on the Mount." The Qumran text indeed has common elements but predates the Matthew text by at least a hundred years.
The main reason for the close similarity lies in the fact that both authors utilize a Hebrew poetic style that imitates Psalms. In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus uses this traditional Hebrew form as he speaks to a crowd of people on the slopes near the Sea of Galilee.
The Book of Revelation is a multifaceted text and an outstanding example of Jewish apocalyptic literature. Reading Revelation as a Jewish text, against the background of other Jewish literary works of the same era, helps to explain its symbolism and uncover its original message.
Six Key Ideas When Reading Revelation
It's not a secret that the Book of Revelation is frequently misread and misunderstood. The main reason - it is not like any other book in the Bible. Several key truths frame how the book should be read and interpreted. Missing these simple facts will lead to a certain misreading of the book's message.
We are going to finish this first part of study by going over six ideas to keep in mind as we study the book of Revelation:
1. Revelation is a typical Jewish apocalyptical text. It speaks to readers via symbols and heavenly visions, through cultural images and codes aimed at the insider audience.
2. As a Jewish text it expresses anti-Roman sentiments. It enters a polemic with the paganism of the Roman Empire. Jesus is presented in opposition to the existing Roman structures. It is his kingship versus all other authorities.
3. Revelation is a real letter. We often call it a book but it is a letter. The message was sent to assemblies of persecuted Christ-followers in Asia minor.
4. Revelation is a prophetic message. It issues stern warnings and rebukes to those who choose paganism and offers rewards of a bright future to those who despite pressure and persecutions and remain faithful to the God of Israel. The call of Revelation for all believers for all of time, in any age or country, is to remain faithful to the God of Israel.
5. Revelation is primarily about first-century events. The author says his visions will come to pass "very soon" (Rev. 1:1, 22:6) The message was intended to be fully understood and embraced by first-century believers.
6. Revelation is also about past and future events as well. The visions of some events are presented as prophetic expectations of the future yet to come.
References
This lesson was adapted from Dr. Eli Lizorkin-Eyzenberg's teachings in Revelation in Its Jewish Context, Part 1, as presented on the Israel Bible Center website.