1) Understanding the Eternal Bond: The Role of Covenants in the Bible
Introduction
As we embark on the covenantal category of the redemptive plan, we must explore one of the most fundamental aspects of biblical theology: the covenant. Throughout the scriptures, covenants between God and His people not only dictate the flow of biblical history but also illustrate the profound commitments that define relationships within the Bible. From divine promises and moral obligations to the consequences of human actions, covenants form the backbone of biblical narratives and theological teachings.
In the last module, we looked at covenants with Adam and Noah. As we move forward, we will examine some of the most pivotal covenants in the Bible—those made with, Abraham, Moses at Sinai, David, and finally the transformative New Covenant, which is often misunderstood. Each of these covenants has shaped the theological landscape of the Bible and offers us invaluable insights into the character of God and His way of relating to humanity. Join us as we uncover the layers of meaning and the powerful impact of these divine agreements that are as relevant today as they were thousands of years ago.
The Standard Narrative of the Bible versus the Covenantal Framework
Hope is defined in the context of the narrative of the Bible. That narrative is about God making covenants. Not covenants with humanity in general, but instead, with certain people, specifically Israel. Further, God promises to be faithful to those covenants.
When we study the Bible, within the Christian Church, we have two competing narratives: The Standard Narrative and the Covenantal Framework. The problem is, in most Christian churches, the covenantal framework is not taught.
The Standard Narrative
The standard narrative of the Bible rests on four points of emphasis: Creation, the curse, the cross, and then consummation. This is the gospel to many Christians and there is truth in this explanation. The issue with viewing the Bible in this way is that it emphasizes the first few chapters of Genesis. It emphasizes Matthew through Revelation. It does not emphasize the remainder of the Old Testament. The Old Testament becomes secondary to the remainder of the story line. This is how many Christians understand the Bible. It is no surprise that many Christians know very little about the law and the prophets.
The Covenantal Framework
The covenantal framework starts with God with His creation. God is there for the curse. He visited Abraham with the covenant of election. He visited Israel on Sinai with the covenant for the nation. He visited David with the covenant of the promised kingdom. The prophets testify about the same thing. Then we have Jesus and the apostles testifying about the same thing. In 2 Peter, we see Peter testifying to the continuity from the Old Testament prophets. We read:
For we did not follow cleverly devised myths when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty. For when he received honor and glory from God the Father, and the voice was borne to him by the Majestic Glory, “This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased,” we ourselves heard this very voice borne from heaven, for we were with him on the holy mountain. And we have the prophetic word more fully confirmed, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, (2 Peter 1:16-19, ESV Bible)
Peter confirms that his testimony confirms what was said in the prophets: “And we have the prophetic word more fully confirmed, to which you will do well to pay attention.” This is his understanding of what's going on and why they were chosen.
What is a Covenant?
To properly understand the Bible, we need to understand the covenants in the Bible and how they work. The idea of a covenant in modern society is a foreign concept. The Hebrew word for covenant is brit. A covenant or brit, is an agreement between two parties who agree to certain terms and stipulations. Covenants are more binding than a simple contract. A contract may expire at a certain date. Covenants are permanent.
There are few covenantal relationships in modern society. One example, is the marriage relationship. It is a genuine covenant relationship much like ancient covenants. God relates to his people through a covenant relationship.
Ancient Near Eastern Treaties and Agreements
The Bible is not the only place where we can find covenants. George E. Mendenhall was a scholar who made significant strides in understanding the structure and implications of ancient Near Eastern treaties, particularly how they relate to biblical covenants.
Mendenhall is credited with a breakthrough in biblical studies through his application of ancient Near Eastern treaty forms to the understanding of biblical covenants. He argued that the covenantal structures found in the Bible closely mirrored those of Hittite and other Near Eastern treaties, which were prevalent during the second millennium BCE.
Mendenhall's work highlighted the similarities between the biblical covenants and the suzerain-vassal treaties found in the ancient Near East. In these treaties, a suzerain (a sovereign or lord) would establish a treaty with a vassal (a subordinate ruler), outlining the suzerain's protection in exchange for the vassal's loyalty and service. This format typically included elements such as:
A preamble in which the sovereign is identified
An historical prologue describing previous relations between the parties
Stipulations and demands of the sovereign
Swearing of allegiance with curses and blessings, that is Covenant Ratification
Witnesses and directions for carrying out the treaty - including signs of the treaty.
The Suzerain Treaty: "A suzerainty treaty was an accord that chiefly defined vassal loyalty. The focus here was on the obligation of the inferior party, though the suzerain embraced specific obligations as well. The suzerain pledged to enable, protect, and sustain his vassals (and their progeny) with all of his resources, power, and ability, if the vassals would swear to keep in perpetuity the specifications, laws, statutes of the suzerain as delineated in the covenant. The chief feature of this covenant was the law-code: the list of requisites that were obligatory on the part of the vassals in order to prove continued covenant fealty. In this case, the suzerain contractually offered the terms in pledge to the vassal, and the vassal swore to accept those terms. The vassals, along with the suzerain, were exclusive direct participants in the enactment and the fulfillment of the covenant terms. This covenant was bilateral in nature, both parties pledging their allegiance."
Royal Grants: "A royal grant was an accord that chiefly rewarded vassal loyalty. The focus here was on the obligation of the superior party, though the vassal owned certain responsibilities as well. In a royal grant, a sovereign awarded favors or benefits to a proven loyalist. Typically, the subject party had long and/or valiantly demonstrated his fidelity to his lord. The suzerain, then, would provide heightened privilege (e.g., special housing, clothing, transportation, property, food, servants, access, etc.) to the faithful subordinate. The chief feature of this covenant was the list of benefits that the sovereign promised to bestow on the subject and his progeny. In this case, the suzerain alone swore to the terms of the covenant. The vassal had only to enjoy those privileges as long as he or his descendants chose to participate in the benefits and retain loyalty to the benefactor. The vassal, at best, participated only indirectly in the enactment of the covenant by witnessing the oath of the benefactor as he swore to the terms. This covenant was unilateral in nature, one party (the benefactor) swearing to his pledge.
In the ancient near east, covenants can be between individuals, tribes, between nations, and so forth. The entire book of Deuteronomy reads as a covenant treaty. There is an element of holiness and divinity in covenant making. In the ancient near east, covenants always had a religious element. The God’s were like the wardens who watched the covenants and held parties responsible. They would offer blessings and curses. This also explains why a sacrifice is often used. In the biblical world, a covenant usually involved a sacrifice, ritual or some type of calling on the “gods.” The God of Israel always ratified His covenants with the blood of animal sacrifices. Covenants were completed with a shared meal. The parties involved in the covenant would agree upon a sign of their covenant that would serve as a reminder of the obligations to each other.
A covenant requires of both parties the following: 1) Mutual benefit, 2) Terms and Conditions, and 3) Fidelity and Faithfulness.
There is much speculation about how this framework for covenants got started. Some people think God was just accommodating the understanding of the times, so that they would understand it. Another way of viewing it is that God interacted this way with Adam and it got passed down through the generations afterwards. The main point being made here is that all of the biblical covenants follow this pattern.
Biblical Covenants are the Foundation of Our Hope
Earlier we said hope is defined in the context of the narrative of the Bible. That narrative is about God making covenants. The concept of hope and having faith are closely related. The Bible defines what it means to have faith as a disciple of Jesus in Hebrews 11:
Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen…And without faith it is impossible to please him, for whoever would draw near to God must believe that he exists and that he rewards those who seek him. (Hebrews 11:1, 6, ESV Bible)
From Abraham to the prophets of the Old Testament, hope in the faithful fulfillment of God’s promises shapes the unfolding story of the Bible. What promises? We are referring to the promises that God makes in all of his covenants.
Throughout all of these covenant narratives that we will explore, we see a large list of promises made to the people of Israel. And the story line throughout the Old Testament shows again and again that God is faithful even when the people are not. These promises have not been fully realized and that is all part of God’s enduring plan. There remains a hope in the faithful fulfillment of all of God’s promises. These covenant promises create an anticipation of great restoration for all of God’s covenant people.
The gospel or "good news” was an announcement to Israel about their coming redemption. The gospel was an idea that despite the covenant maintenance that was taking place at the time in history with Israel, with the maintenance often seen as Israel as in judgment or experiencing discipline because of disobedience to God. The gospel represents God not forgetting Israel and He would come and would fulfill everything that he said through the Law and the Prophets. This “gospel,” based on the promises of the law and the prophets, became the narrative within which the death of Jesus was understood. When we try to understand the death of Jesus without that Jewish narrative, it leads to a lot of chaos, as we have witnessed over the last couple of millennia and something we will explore more in module five. This unfolding story of hope and covenant promises creates a necessary foundation for the full gospel message.
In the narrative of Scripture, the gospel is not merely a message of salvation through Christ but a continuation and fulfillment of the enduring promises God made to Israel through the covenants. The Law and the Prophets lay a foundational narrative that anticipates redemption and restoration. These covenant promises frame our understanding of Jesus' death and resurrection. The covenant promises also frame our understanding of his second coming, representing the ultimate fulfillment of all promises.
When we detach Jesus’ death, resurrection, and second coming from this covenantal framework, we risk misinterpreting the scope and purpose of the gospel. Such an approach can lead to confusion and a disjointed theology that fails to recognize the continuity of God's redemptive plan. Instead, Jesus should be seen as the mediator of the covenants, the one through whom the promises are not only ultimately fulfilled but also extended and deepened. And “fulfilled” is a future context, as his work is ongoing and will be concluded after his second coming. Failure to see this, results in us, His followers, trying to realize the promises in the now, which cannot be done in entirety.
In this light, Jesus does not negate the covenants; rather, He embodies and activates their ultimate purpose and fulfillment. This view helps us appreciate the gospel as a story of God's faithfulness to His promises, a narrative that includes but transcends the historical moment of the cross. It invites us into a richer, more coherent understanding of Scripture where the old and new are seamlessly connected through Christ, the faithful mediator.
Covenants are a Serious Matter
All throughout the Bible, God relates to His people through a covenantal relationship. But how do these covenants relate to each other?
When Joshua led the Israelites into the promised land of Canaan, they were instructed by God to conquer the land and not to make treaties with the inhabitants.
However, the Gibeonites, who were one of the Canaanite peoples, devised a plan to avoid destruction. They dressed themselves in worn-out clothes and carried old sacks and wine skins to appear as if they had traveled from a distant land. They approached Joshua and the Israelites at their camp at Gilgal and claimed to be from a far-away region. They asked for a treaty of peace with the Israelites, presenting their worn gear and moldy food as evidence of their long journey.
Joshua and the leaders of Israel were deceived by this ruse. They did not consult the Lord but relied on their own judgment and observations. Believing the Gibeonites' story, they entered into a covenant of peace with them, swearing by the name of the Lord that they would not harm them.
Three days after making the covenant, Joshua learned that the Gibeonites were actually local inhabitants. However, because the leaders of Israel had sworn an oath to them, they decided to let them live to avoid the wrath of God for breaking their oath. Instead, the Gibeonites were made woodcutters and water carriers for the community and for the altar of the Lord, a status that placed them in perpetual servitude to the Israelites.
In Joshua 9, we read the story:
But when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and to Ai, they on their part acted with cunning and went and made ready provisions and took worn-out sacks for their donkeys, and wineskins, worn-out and torn and mended, with worn-out, patched sandals on their feet, and worn-out clothes. And all their provisions were dry and crumbly. And they went to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal and said to him and to the men of Israel, “We have come from a distant country, so now make a covenant with us.” But the men of Israel said to the Hivites, “Perhaps you live among us; then how can we make a covenant with you?” They said to Joshua, “We are your servants.” And Joshua said to them, “Who are you? And where do you come from?”They said to him, “From a very distant country your servants have come, because of the name of the LORD your God. For we have heard a report of him, and all that he did in Egypt, and all that he did to the two kings of the Amorites who were beyond the Jordan, to Sihon the king of Heshbon, and to Og king of Bashan, who lived in Ashtaroth. So our elders and all the inhabitants of our country said to us, ‘Take provisions in your hand for the journey and go to meet them and say to them, “We are your servants. Come now, make a covenant with us.”’ Here is our bread. It was still warm when we took it from our houses as our food for the journey on the day we set out to come to you, but now, behold, it is dry and crumbly. These wineskins were new when we filled them, and behold, they have burst. And these garments and sandals of ours are worn out from the very long journey.” So the men took some of their provisions, but did not ask counsel from the LORD. And Joshua made peace with them and made a covenant with them, to let them live, and the leaders of the congregation swore to them. (Joshua 9:3-15, ESV Bible)
Joshua summoned them, and he said to them, “Why did you deceive us, saying, ‘We are very far from you,’ when you dwell among us? Now therefore you are cursed, and some of you shall never be anything but servants, cutters of wood and drawers of water for the house of my God.” They answered Joshua, “Because it was told to your servants for a certainty that the LORD your God had commanded his servant Moses to give you all the land and to destroy all the inhabitants of the land from before you—so we feared greatly for our lives because of you and did this thing. And now, behold, we are in your hand. Whatever seems good and right in your sight to do to us, do it.” So he did this to them and delivered them out of the hand of the people of Israel, and they did not kill them. But Joshua made them that day cutters of wood and drawers of water for the congregation and for the altar of the LORD, to this day, in the place that he should choose. (Joshua 9:22-27, ESV Bible)
So the Gibeonites fool Joshua into making a covenant. A little later Joshua found out they lived near by! But there was nothing that Joshua and Israel could do about this. They had made a covenant and they were bound to keep their obligations to the covenant.
Generations later, King Saul decides not to keep a covenant that Joshua made so long ago (several centuries later; 300-400 years later). King Saul sends his army and put many of the men of Gideon to the sword. It looks like he gets away with breaking a covenant. But nobody gets away with breaking a covenant.
In the days of King David, a devastating drought hits Israel. King David goes to the prophets and says, “why is God punishing us, what can we do?” God revealed to David that the famine was a punishment because Saul had put some Gibeonites to death, in violation of the covenant that Joshua and the Israelites had made with them centuries earlier. This act of Saul was not detailed earlier in the biblical texts but is referenced here as having violated the sacred oath made in the name of the Lord:
Now there was a famine in the days of David for three years, year after year. And David sought the face of the LORD. And the LORD said, “There is bloodguilt on Saul and on his house, because he put the Gibeonites to death.” So the king called the Gibeonites and spoke to them. Now the Gibeonites were not of the people of Israel but of the remnant of the Amorites. Although the people of Israel had sworn to spare them, Saul had sought to strike them down in his zeal for the people of Israel and Judah. And David said to the Gibeonites, “What shall I do for you? And how shall I make atonement, that you may bless the heritage of the LORD?” The Gibeonites said to him, “It is not a matter of silver or gold between us and Saul or his house; neither is it for us to put any man to death in Israel.” And he said, “What do you say that I shall do for you?” They said to the king, “The man who consumed us and planned to destroy us, so that we should have no place in all the territory of Israel, let seven of his sons be given to us, so that we may hang them before the LORD at Gibeah of Saul, the chosen of the LORD.” And the king said, “I will give them.” (2 Samuel 21:1-6, ESV Bible)
The Gibeonites killed the seven sons of King Saul and hung them on a hilltop. The Torah forbids leaving a hanging body out overnight. But the Gibeonites did not follow the Torah. King David allowed the bodies to remain.
They were put to death in the first days of harvest, at the beginning of barley harvest. Then Rizpah the daughter of Aiah took sackcloth and spread it for herself on the rock, from the beginning of harvest until rain fell upon them from the heavens. And she did not allow the birds of the air to come upon them by day, or the beasts of the field by night. When David was told what Rizpah the daughter of Aiah, the concubine of Saul, had done, David went and took the bones of Saul and the bones of his son Jonathan from the men of Jabesh-gilead, who had stolen them from the public square of Beth-shan, where the Philistines had hanged them, on the day the Philistines killed Saul on Gilboa. And he brought up from there the bones of Saul and the bones of his son Jonathan; and they gathered the bones of those who were hanged. And they buried the bones of Saul and his son Jonathan in the land of Benjamin in Zela, in the tomb of Kish his father. And they did all that the king commanded. And after that God responded to the plea for the land. (2 Samuel 21:9-14, ESV Bible)
According to the biblical account in 2 Samuel 21, they were left hanging on the hill before the Lord from the beginning of barley harvest until water dropped on them from the heavens, which suggests the onset of the rainy season. The beginning of their barley harvest is in April. The rains don’t come all summer long, usually until November.
This is a tragic story but it underscores the seriousness with which oaths made before God are to be taken. Even many years after the original covenant was made, the breach of this promise had severe consequences. Covenants are unbreakable and intergenerational. Breaking a covenant has dire consequences and breaking a covenant requires some form of atonement. A covenant’s unbreakable nature is a foundation of our faith.
Covenant Basics
The story of the Gibeonite covenant teaches us some important things about biblical covenants. When studying the covenants in the Bible, there are some basic, fundamental things we need to keep in mind:
First, all of the covenants are binding. Joshua would not break the covenant, even though it was with Canaanites.
Second, covenants are intergenerational. Saul was obligated to keep a covenant that Joshua had made hundreds of years before.
Third, breaking a covenant has consequences. When Saul broke the covenant, Israel was punished with a famine.
Last, a broken covenant requires atonement.
Covenants in the Bible, build upon each other, they do not cancel one another out. Each covenant often addresses and expands upon the promises and responsibilities established in prior agreements, adapting and extending them to new contexts and generations. Paul points out that even though God made later covenants with Israel, a later covenant does not set aside an early covenant:
To give a human example, brothers: even with a man-made covenant, no one annuls it or adds to it once it has been ratified. Now the promises were made to Abraham and to his offspring. It does not say, “And to offsprings,” referring to many, but referring to one, “And to your offspring,” who is Christ. This is what I mean: the law, which came 430 years afterward, does not annul a covenant previously ratified by God, so as to make the promise void. (Galatians 3:15-17, ESV Bible)
Covenants have terms and conditions. God’s end of the bargain are covenant provisions. The other parties obligations are the covenant obligations.
All of these covenant basics demonstrate that the Bible portrays a God who is both consistent in His promises and responsive to the changing contexts of His people.