Introduction to Acts
The New Testament is Not Christian
Peter, James, John, Paul, and Barnabas—all of these men were Jews, though they are often associated with the beginnings of Christianity. This association stems from the fact that their mission ultimately led to a predominantly Gentile Christian community. However, at the time, they did not foresee this outcome. Their message was rooted in a central prophecy from Jesus: “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near; repent, and believe in the good news” (Mark 1:15). This prophecy, grounded in Jesus’ own teachings, centered on God fulfilling His ancient promises to Israel—redeeming history, defeating evil, raising the dead, and establishing a reign of justice and peace. Jesus’ resurrection, as described in Acts, was seen as the first sign that the general resurrection was near, and his followers believed the Kingdom of God was imminent (Acts 1:6-11). Convinced that their Messiah would soon return, they spread the message with urgency, seeing themselves in a Spirit-filled period between Jesus’ resurrection and his expected second coming.
Paul, though he never personally met Jesus, became one of the movement’s most influential figures. In his letters, written between the late 40s and 50s CE, he expresses the same anticipation. In 1 Thessalonians, one of his earliest letters, Paul tells the believers that he expects both himself and his readers to be alive when Jesus returns, saying, “For the Lord himself, with a cry of command…will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first” (1 Thessalonians 4:16). He tells the Philippians, “The Lord is near” (Philippians 4:5), and assures the Corinthians that “the ends of the ages have come” (1 Corinthians 10:11). Even in his final letters, like Romans, he confidently states that “salvation is nearer to us now than when we became believers; the night is far gone, the day is near” (Romans 13:11-12).
Paul’s ministry included a complex relationship with the original Jewish followers of Jesus, including leaders like Peter (also called “Cephas”), John, and James, the brother of Jesus (Galatians 1:18–19). In Galatians, Paul recounts how he went to Jerusalem to discuss his mission among the Gentiles with these leaders, affirming his belief that his message was consistent with theirs (Galatians 2:1–10). Although he later criticized some who he believed strayed from this vision—those he called “false brothers” (Galatians 2:4)—Paul remained connected to the Jerusalem community, encouraging his Gentile congregations to support “the poor among the saints in Jerusalem” (Romans 15:25–27; 2 Corinthians 9:1–15), reinforcing his commitment to the unity of the movement.
Other writings, especially the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, enrich our understanding of this early Christian period. The “synoptic” Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—offer different versions of Jesus’ life and teachings, while the unique perspective of John’s Gospel presents a theologically distinct view of Jesus. Acts, as a continuation of Luke’s Gospel, narrates the early church’s expansion from Jerusalem to Rome, illustrating how the message spread to both Jews and Gentiles. These sources, along with other Jewish writings from the time, such as Daniel’s apocalyptic visions (Daniel 7–12), and the rich imagery of Isaiah (Isaiah 52–53), offer background on the Jewish expectations and beliefs that shaped early Christian teachings.
One crucial historical source, Josephus, offers us a unique view of the first-century Jewish world. A priest and historian who lived through the Jewish-Roman War, Josephus was familiar with the religious and political groups in Jerusalem, including the Pharisees and Sadducees, and had knowledge of Jesus’ followers. His works document the social and religious tensions in Jerusalem, providing context for the early Christian message that emerged in a period of turmoil.
Through Paul’s letters and these additional sources, we gain insight into the profound convictions of Jesus’ first followers. They anticipated the imminent fulfillment of God’s promises, but history did not end as they expected. Despite their belief in an immediate Kingdom, their message, writings, and experiences laid the groundwork for Christianity—a faith deeply rooted in Jewish tradition but transformed by its encounter with the Gentile world.
Josephus’s accounts clarify the complex background of this period, describing centuries of relative stability in Jerusalem that followed the Babylonian captivity (586–533 BCE). During this time, aristocratic priests, working with imperial governors, oversaw Judea’s governance. Josephus also narrates the geopolitical conflicts between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires following Alexander the Great’s conquests (after 323 BCE), which heavily influenced Jerusalem’s rulers. His writings enrich our understanding of Jewish independence under the Hasmoneans, recorded in books like 1 and 2 Maccabees, when they established sovereignty as both high priests and kings (167–140 BCE). He recounts the rule of Herod the Great, who expanded the Jewish state while also enacting tyrannical policies (37–4 BCE), setting the stage for the fraught relations between the Jewish leaders and the Romans following Herod’s death.
Josephus gives particular attention to the increasing tensions between Rome and Jerusalem’s chief priests. Roman prefects and procurators clashed with popular Jewish prophets and nationalists, creating unrest, particularly during the Jewish high holidays, when thousands of pilgrims filled the city. Among the Jewish population, a widespread expectation of a coming Kingdom of God fueled hopes for a messianic deliverance, which Josephus describes as a major reason behind the eventual revolt against Rome. Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem shared this messianic hope, expecting a swift fulfillment of God’s promises and the imminent return of the Messiah—a belief central to their identity and message.
The presence of Rome in Judea affected not only the political climate but also the development of the early Christian movement. Jesus’ crucifixion—an execution method reserved for crimes against Rome—demonstrated the empire’s severe response to any perceived threat to its authority. As Mark recounts, the Roman charge against Jesus was that he was “King of the Jews” (Mark 15:26), underscoring the political tension around his identity. Yet, the same Roman infrastructure that facilitated his execution also enabled the spread of his message: Roman roads and naval policing allowed for safe travel, which Paul leveraged to carry the gospel from Jerusalem to regions across the Mediterranean, even reaching Rome within two decades (Romans 15:23-24).
During these years, the early Jesus movement grew, encountering unexpected successes and new questions about leadership and mission. The Jerusalem community wrestled with practical concerns—how to wait for the Messiah’s return, what message to share, and to whom. There were also questions about its relationship with assemblies in the Diaspora, and the unexpected inclusion of Gentiles (Acts 10:44-48). Paul’s letters document these early developments, revealing a community both surprised and challenged by its own growth.
One of the central questions this era raises is why Jesus’ followers remained in Jerusalem, the city where he had been crucified under the charge of being “King of the Jews.” This question, as When Christians Were Jews explores, points to their enduring hope: they believed Jesus’ resurrection was a sign of the coming Kingdom, and that the fulfillment of God’s promises was imminent. This hope, rooted in Jesus’ own prophecy of the Kingdom, sustained them through years of political unrest and Roman persecution, as they lived in anticipation of the end of time. Josephus’s and New Testament writings alike capture this hope, allowing us a glimpse into the conviction and struggles of those who believed they were witnessing the dawn of God’s Kingdom.
References
This lesson is adapted from When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation by Paula Fredriksen.
Title and Authorship
The Acts of the Apostles (Acts) appears fifth in the canonical order of the books of the New Testament. It is widely believed that the Book of Acts was written by Luke (Λουκᾶς /Loukas/). The writing itself does not mention the name of the author. The attribution is by tradition.
Luke and Acts together comprise a ¼ of all Apostolic writings which today are commonly called "The New Testament". Luke, the author of Acts, introduces the book as the second volume of a two-part story. It's a continuation of the greatest story ever told, and he assumes his readers are familiar with the first installment—his Gospel. In the opening verses, he briefly references what Jesus began to do and teach.
If Luke, indeed wrote both Acts and the Gospel of Luke then it is one big story and it should be read together. The two works (Luke-Acts) have a common literary style, narrative parallels, and thematic similarities. While the title “Acts” refers in general to all the apostles, the work focuses on Peter and Paul.
The attribution of Acts to Luke, often considered a physician and companion of Paul (Col 4.14; 2 Tim 4.11; Philem 24), first appears in the second century (Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.1.1; 3.14.1; Tertullian, Marc. 4.2.2; Clement, Paed. 2.1.15; Strom. 5.12.82). The author had considerable familiarity with the Hebrew Bible through its Greek translation (the Septuagint), Jewish customs and institutions such as Sabbath restrictions on travel (1.12), Greek literary traditions (Paul quotes from Greek poets in 17.28), and Roman political structures (e.g., legal proceedings in ch 24).
References
This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club and from teachings in Stories of the Jewish Church: Acts 1-5, as presented on the Israel Bible Center website and from the introduction to the Acts of the Apostles in the Jewish Annotated New Testament
When was the Book Written?
Like many New Testament writings, the precise dating of Luke and Acts remains debated among scholars, with some proposing earlier and later dates based on other textual and historical considerations..
An Earlier Writing (pre 70 CE)
Some scholars support an earlier date for the composition of Luke and Acts, noting the narrative structure of Acts. The author, traditionally identified as Luke, begins by recounting the actions of the apostles in Jerusalem and across Israel. After this, he details Paul finding Jesus as Messiah, the apostle to the Gentiles, on the road to Damascus. The narrative then follows Paul’s travels through foreign lands, leading up to Troas, where Luke himself joins Paul's journey (Acts 16:10: "So we tried to go to Macedonia, understanding that God had called us"). From this point on, the author uses the first-person plural "we," indicating his constant presence with Paul.
In Acts 21, Luke describes accompanying Paul to Jerusalem, where Paul was arrested by Jewish authorities, handed over to the Romans, and eventually sent to Rome to present his case before Caesar. This close and detailed account of Paul's ministry and eventual journey to Rome supports the idea that the author wrote with firsthand knowledge of events, possibly suggesting an earlier date for the texts before these events became widely known.
He concludes his book by telling how Paul rented a house and had a soldier constantly guarding him. Paul resided there two full years and preached the kingdom of God, teaching the ways of Yeshua the Messiah, with no one hindering him. From this it appears that Luke wrote his book after these two years and that he wrote no more about what happened after this. Apparently, because Theophilus was very old at the time, Luke hurried to inform him of the deeds of the apostles and of Paul up to that date, and from Theophilus it went to all nations. The apparent date for the composition of this book was about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem (65-68 CE).
A Later Writing (post 70 CE)
In the Jewish Annotated New Testament, authors Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Avi Brettler think that the Gospel of Luke probably alludes to the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple. Specifically, passages like Luke 19:41–44 and 21:20–24 are interpreted as allusions to this historical event, leading many scholars to date Luke's composition to sometime after 70 CE. This dating aligns with the view that Luke's gospel was written in response to the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple, reflecting a time when those events were known and significant to the community.
It is also possible that the author of Acts had access to the writings of Josephus, who wrote about the Jewish-Roman War and the fall of Jerusalem. Since Josephus's major works, like The Jewish War, were composed after 70 CE, this implies that Acts could have been written in the late first or early second century CE. Therefore, a later dating for Luke-Acts, potentially extending into the early second century, is considered plausible by some scholars. While a precise date is impossible to establish, Acts was most likely composed early in the second century ce.
References
This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in Chronicles of the Apostles, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club and from the introduction to the Acts of the Apostles in the Jewish Annotated New Testament
Literary History
Acts has long been understood as a history of the early followers of Jesus or what Christianity would call the early “church.” The author describes the work as an orderly narrative based on careful investigation (see Lk 1.3). Several characters, such as the Roman proconsul Gallio (18.12) and Felix and Festus, the procurators of Judea (ch 24), are historical figures. Other details, such as the sailing routes and nautical practices (e.g., 27.9–44), references to Roman law (ch 24), and beginning in chapter 16, the frequent use of first-person plural (“we”), have suggested that the author was present at the events narrated or had access to firsthand accounts.
Modern scholarship has critically examined the Book of Acts, questioning its historical accuracy for several reasons. Here's a breakdown of the key points, all tied to scripture references:
Historical Reliability: Scholars point out that some of the events, sayings, and actions attributed to key figures like Peter, Paul, and other apostles in Acts are not confirmed elsewhere. For example, many events in Acts lack corroboration in other New Testament writings, particularly in Paul's own letters.
Jerusalem Council and Gentile Requirements: A significant issue revolves around the decision made at the Jerusalem council in Acts 15. In this passage, James lays out conditions for Gentile converts, including abstaining from food that has been strangled, blood, and meat sacrificed to idols, echoing laws found in the Torah (Leviticus 17:15, 18:8). However, when we turn to Paul's own letter in Galatians 2:10, he only references the requirement to "remember the poor" as an agreement made with the Jerusalem leaders. There is no mention of dietary restrictions, which suggests a possible discrepancy between what Paul himself experienced and how Acts presents the decision.
Selection and Purpose in Acts: The Book of Acts is not just a straightforward historical account but also a theological narrative. The author, traditionally Luke, structures the events, speeches, and details to convey specific theological points. This means that even if historical elements are present, the way they are ordered and emphasized is influenced by the author’s theological objectives, which might differ from Paul's perspectives in his epistles.
Content of Speeches and Theological Interests: The speeches in Acts, such as Peter's sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2) or Paul's address at the Areopagus (Acts 17), are often seen by scholars as literary constructions. They may reflect the author's theological views and goals rather than verbatim accounts. In ancient historiography, it was common for writers to craft speeches to highlight themes or ideas, suggesting that Luke might have employed similar techniques to promote a particular theological understanding of the early church.
Thus, while Acts provides valuable insight into the early Christian movement, it is essential to read it with an awareness of its purpose, literary structure, and the potential theological motivations of its author. Paul's letters, on the other hand, provide a more direct view of his thoughts and experiences, leading to the observed differences in accounts between Acts and his epistles.
The questioning of the historical accuracy of the Book of Acts often seems to be influenced by theological perspectives. Many Christian denominations hold the view that Jesus and Paul effectively canceled the Law of Moses and that Paul underwent a conversion to Christianity, breaking away from his Jewish roots. However, the narrative in Acts portrays Paul as a devout Jew who remained deeply connected to Judaism and continued to uphold the Torah.
Paul's letters are frequently interpreted through a lens that assumes the cancellation of the Law, which leads to apparent contradictions with the portrayal of Paul in Acts. However, if one reads Paul's letters with the same perspective that Acts provides—seeing Paul as a committed Jew operating within a Jewish framework—many of these contradictions disappear. In this light, the perceived issues with the Book of Acts often arise not from the text itself but from the theological assumptions that guide one's interpretation of the Bible.
The genre and purpose of the Book of Acts have been subjects of debate among scholars, as they seek to determine whether it should be understood as a historical account, biography, or a Hellenistic novel. This uncertainty also extends to its purpose, with various possibilities being suggested: a defense of Christians to the Romans, a defense of Romans to Christians, a preservation of Paul's legacy (especially against accusations of antinomianism, or abandoning the Mosaic Law), a reassurance for Christians concerned about the delay of Jesus' return, or a unifying effort for early Christian communities with differing views.
In light of the theological agendas previously discussed, it's clear that how one interprets Acts—both in terms of genre and purpose—is influenced by the theological perspective one brings to the text. For instance, those who hold the view that Paul canceled the Mosaic Law might see Acts as a defense of Paul against accusations of being unfaithful to the Torah, while others who see Paul as maintaining his Jewish identity within the framework of the Torah would interpret the narrative differently. Acts might then appear less as a defense of Paul’s memory and more as a historical account emphasizing his ongoing Jewish allegiance.
The attitude of Acts toward the Roman Empire adds another layer of complexity. The narrative presents a nuanced relationship with Rome, reflecting both a recognition of Roman legitimacy and a subtle critique of its imperial claims. Depending on the theological lens applied, some may emphasize the portrayal of Rome as an indifferent or even protective force toward Christianity, while others may focus on the underlying tensions between Roman imperial power and the Jewish-Christian message of the early church.
Thus, theological agendas not only impact how Paul’s relationship to the Law is understood but also influence interpretations of Acts' broader purpose and the nature of its content. If one's theology views Christianity as distinct and separate from Judaism, then Acts might be seen as a reconciliatory or defensive narrative addressing Roman audiences and internal church divisions. Conversely, a theology that sees early Christianity as inherently Jewish would interpret Acts as a continuation of the Jewish story, with Paul as a figure operating firmly within that context.
In essence, these scholarly debates and the interpretation of Acts are tightly intertwined with theological perspectives that shape one's understanding of early Christianity, Paul's identity, and the church’s relationship with both Jewish and Roman worlds.
References
This lesson is adapted from the introduction to the Acts of the Apostles in the Jewish Annotated New Testament
Acts is Not the History of the Church
We should not approach the Book of Acts as a strict historical record. While it includes historical events, its purpose is not to chronicle those events or arrange them in a precise sequence. Some readers view Acts as a “church history” book, but, like the Gospels, Acts is primarily an inspirational work built around stories of faith and the spiritual messages they impart. Though the Gospels and Acts contain historical elements, their focus is more on conveying meaning and inspiration than providing a conventional historical account.
References
This lesson was adapted from teachings in Stories of the Jewish Church: Acts 1-5, as presented on the Israel Bible Center website.
Guide to Reading Acts
The Book of Acts is central to Christian tradition, emphasizing key themes without the detailed argumentation found in Paul’s letters. One of its primary focuses is the power of the Holy Spirit, which is portrayed as guiding and protecting the early Jesus community. For example, in Acts 19:21, the Spirit directs Paul’s journey, showing its authoritative role within the followers of Jesus. The resurrection of Jesus is presented as the definitive proof of His identity, as demonstrated in Acts 2:22–32, making it the cornerstone of the early Christian message. Acts also emphasizes that salvation is available to all, transcending ethnic boundaries. In Acts 10:34–35, Peter’s proclamation that "God shows no partiality" underscores this inclusive vision, welcoming Gentiles into the fold of God’s people.
Martyrdom and communal living are also significant themes, with stories like Stephen’s martyrdom in Acts 6–7 and the early disciples sharing of possessions in Acts 2:45 influencing later Christian thought. Acts presents the early disciples as an idealized, harmonious community expanding from Jerusalem to Rome, shifting from a Jewish context to a predominantly Gentile audience. This shift highlights a crucial aspect of Acts: the inclusion of Gentiles as full participants in God’s promises. Acts portrays this inclusion as a divine act, seen in Peter’s vision and the conversion of Cornelius in Acts 10, while also attributing it to some Jews rejecting the message, as depicted in Acts 13:46, 18:5–6, and 28:28. The book’s conclusion, where Paul declares that “the Gentiles will listen” (Acts 28:28), reflects the reality that former pagans, not Jews, comprised the majority of Jesus following communities by the time of Acts' writing.
A major shift in Acts is from an ethnic definition of God’s people, centered on Jewish identity, to a theological one based on belief in Jesus as the Messiah. In Acts 4:12, it is declared that “there is no other name under heaven...by which we must be saved,” marking belief in Jesus as the new criterion for inclusion. This redefinition does not disregard Jewish customs and traditions, which are still honored throughout the narrative. Jewish institutions, leaders, and practices play a prominent role; the Temple remains a significant site of worship, Paul takes vows (Acts 18:18), observes Jewish festivals like Passover and Shavuot (Acts 20:6; 2:1), and synagogues are frequently described as centers of religious life. Acts presents Jewish customs alongside the emerging Gentile identity, creating a bridge between the two.
The portrayal of Rome in Acts adds another layer of complexity. Roman officials are generally depicted as respectful and fair toward Jesus followers, exemplified by Paul’s appeal to his Roman citizenship in Acts 22:25–27. This portrayal may have served to reassure Christian readers of their legitimacy within the Roman world, even as Acts critiques Roman imperial claims by applying language like “Lord of all” (Acts 10:36)—traditionally associated with the emperor—to Jesus instead. Acts positions Jesus, not the emperor, as the true savior of the world, subtly challenging Roman authority.
Throughout Acts, scripture is central, with the apostles arguing that a proper understanding of Jewish scriptures points to Jesus as the Messiah. Prophecies from the Psalms and the Prophets are cited to validate this claim, and the differing responses of Jewish audiences are a recurring theme. Some Jews accept the message (Acts 2:41), while others resist it (Acts 7:54), culminating in Paul’s strong condemnation of Jewish unbelief with a citation from Isaiah (Acts 28:25–28). Gentiles, in contrast, often embrace the message with eagerness, highlighting the tension between Jewish and Gentile responses. This distinction becomes a theological dividing line, as Acts envisions a community where faith in Jesus, rather than ethnicity, determines membership in God’s people. Thus, Acts presents a vision of a unified, Spirit-led assembly that respects its Jewish origins while redefining the people of God around faith in Jesus as the Messiah. This evolving identity navigates the challenges of Jewish tradition, Gentile inclusion, and Roman power, shaping the early Christian movement's character and mission.
References
This lesson is adapted from the introduction to the Acts of the Apostles in the Jewish Annotated New Testament
What is an Apostle?
The Book of Acts begins with the moment the Gospel story ends. Messiah died and rose from the grave. The author tells us that many disciples saw their teacher after his resurrection and interacted with him a number of times.
In the first book, O Theophilus, I have dealt with all that Jesus began to do and teach, 2 until the day when he was taken up, after he had given commands through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. (Acts 1:1-2, ESV Bible)
At this point, it's worth pausing to ask: What are the commands Jesus gave to His apostles, and who are these chosen apostles, guided by the Holy Spirit? The instructions include commands like, "Feed my sheep," "Go into all the world, making disciples of all nations," "Teach them to obey everything I have commanded you," "Be my witnesses," and "Stay in Jerusalem until you receive the promise of the Holy Spirit." This prompts another question: Who exactly were these apostles, entrusted with such a mission?
"Gathering them together, He commanded them not to leave Jerusalem, but to wait for what the Father had promised..." (Acts 1:4 NASB)
The risen Yeshua primarily appeared to individuals to commission them as His apostles. As the Apostle Peter explained, “God raised Him up... and allowed Him to be seen, not by all the people, but by witnesses whom God had already chosen” (Acts 10:40-41). To serve as an eyewitness of the risen Messiah, one had to see Him personally.
Who are these apostles whom Jesus had chosen? Before diving in, it’s important to clarify what we mean by the word "apostle." What comes to mind when you hear "apostle"? Perhaps you think of someone who performs signs, wonders, and miracles, or maybe a missionary. But did you know that "apostle" was a common term in the Judaism of Jesus' time—and still is today? The Hebrew equivalent is shaliach.
A shaliach means a "sent one." It comes from the Hebrew verb shalach, meaning "to send." This parallels the Greek word apostolos, which also means "a sent one." In essence, a shaliach is someone sent to carry out a task as a representative of another. In Jewish tradition, a shaliach could act as a legal agent, sometimes with the authority to act on behalf of the one who sent them, or as an emissary or ambassador.
A man who commissioned a shaliach granted him something akin to power of attorney, authorizing him to act as if he were the sender. For example, a man might send a shaliach to betroth a woman on his behalf, representing him in the betrothal ceremony. Similarly, a certificate of divorce could be delivered to a wife through a shaliach. The Talmudic principle states, “A man's shaliach is like the man himself,” meaning that a shaliach carries the full legal authority of the one who sent him (m. Berachot 5:5). In this sense, a shaliach was imbued with the sender's identity and authority. The rabbis even referred to Moses, Elijah, Elisha, and Ezekiel as shlichim of God, as they performed actions typically reserved for God.
In the days of the sages and great rabbis, they would send out shlichim—that is, apostles—on their behalf to complete missions, deliver teachings, or bring rulings to distant communities. These shlichim were often given credential letters to verify their authority, proving they were official representatives speaking with the sender's authority. This practice is reflected in Paul's words in 2 Corinthians, where he mentions the tradition of sending letters of commendation with a shaliach. He questions the Corinthians, asking, "Do we begin again to commend ourselves? Or do we need, as some others, epistles of commendation to you or letters of commendation from you?" He then clarifies, "You are our epistle written in our hearts, known and read by all men" (2 Corinthians 3:1-2, NKJV). In this way, Paul highlights that the Corinthians themselves are a living letter from Messiah, seen and recognized by everyone.
A few chapters later in 2 Corinthians, Paul summarizes his role as a shaliach and the role of all apostles—those who are sent. He states, "Therefore, we are ambassadors for Messiah, as though God were making His appeal through us" (2 Corinthians 5:20). This verse is central to understanding the mission of an apostle: to be sent by Messiah as His ambassador, to testify that He is the Messiah, that He has risen from the dead, and that He will return to establish His kingdom. The message, therefore, is a call to repentance under His authority for the forgiveness of sins before the day of judgment.
In this sense, every disciple, every believer, is called to be a type of shaliach, an emissary of Messiah, because He has entrusted all of His disciples with the responsibility to be His body, to do His work, and to fulfill His will on earth. We are meant to be shlichim shel Mashiach—emissaries of the Messiah. However, in the early community of believers, not everyone could claim to be an apostle. To be a true shaliach, one had to be directly sent by Messiah Himself, which, according to Acts, required having seen the risen Yeshua and being personally commissioned by Him to witness to the world. This distinction is why the office of apostle ceased with the original generation of Yeshua's disciples. While some Christian leaders today may adopt the title “apostle,” in the strictest sense, there have been no true apostles of Yeshua since the original eyewitnesses passed away.
This created a limited number of authentic apostles, and Paul is a unique case. He was the only apostle who did not meet the conventional criteria since his encounter with Yeshua happened in a vision after the Ascension. Paul refers to himself as "one abnormally born," recognizing that he does not fully meet the traditional qualifications of an apostle, as he did not witness the risen Jesus during the 40 days following the Resurrection (1 Corinthians 15:8). Acts chapter one introduces us to the original group of apostles, who were direct witnesses of Jesus' resurrection and had a unique role within the early community of believers.
References
This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.
Who Were Jesus' Apostles?
The core leaders of the community are listed in Acts 1:13-14: "When they had entered the city, they went up to the upper room," and the group included Peter, John, James, Andrew, Philip, Thomas, Bartholomew, Matthew, James the son of Alphaeus, Simon the Zealot, and Judas the son of James. These individuals were united in purpose with the women who followed Jesus, including Mary, the mother of Yeshua, along with His brothers. This core group included the twelve disciples, notable women like Miriam of Magdala, and Yeshua's family members, including His brother James the Just, who would later become the recognized leader of the community.
However, the apostles were not limited to this core group. The Master had an additional 70 disciples, and Acts 1:15 notes that the community numbered at least 120 members at that time. Paul further tells us in 1 Corinthians 15 that the Messiah appeared to more than 500 people at once, suggesting that the total number of witnesses to the resurrection might have been anywhere from 120 to 500. Still, the twelve disciples, along with Yeshua's brothers and family, formed the initial core—the ones called shlichim, the apostles—because they were specifically chosen and sent by Yeshua to be witnesses of His resurrection. He told them, "You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth" (Acts 1:8). This is the foundation upon which the story of the early church unfolds.
The story begins with the apostolic community in Jerusalem and gradually spreads to the surrounding regions of Judea, then Samaria, and eventually to all nations. This is the narrative we'll be exploring. As disciples of Yeshua, these men spent several years closely following Him—learning His teachings, absorbing His traditions, imitating His actions, and internalizing His message about the Kingdom. Now, they are prepared to step into His role and begin making disciples in His name. We will be tracing their journey, as well as that of the latecomer—Paul, the apostle "abnormally born"—through the Book of Acts and beyond.
As followers of Yeshua, because our faith has been handed down to us through these men and women. This is not merely a historical study or an examination of Christian origins. The apostolic community gives us a window into the original expression of faith in Yeshua, unaltered by the passage of time or later church traditions. By studying the apostles, their era, and the communities they established, we catch a glimpse of what they envisioned for the faith. They provide the original model against which we can measure our own beliefs and practices.
For those who, like the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, take pride in apostolic succession—doesn't it make sense to understand who the apostles were and what they truly stood for? If apostolic succession is the basis for church authority, there should be a deep concern about knowing the apostles' genuine legacy. Likewise, Protestant Christianity is founded on the idea that the Church strayed from its biblical roots as it institutionalized, and the entire Protestant movement aims to restore Christianity to its biblical form. That's a noble goal. The best way to achieve it is to study the Apostolic era—how the apostles lived, what they believed, and how they practiced their faith in community. And if reformation is crucial for Protestant Christianity, how much more significant should it be for Messianic Judaism, which seeks to preserve the original context of Yeshua’s message?
In Messianic Judaism, when we study the Apostolic Era, we uncover that Messianic Judaism isn't merely a recent movement of Jewish Christians choosing to retain some Jewish traditions after embracing Christianity. Instead, we discover that, originally, Christianity was inherently Jewish. The apostles themselves were practicing what we now call Messianic Judaism—though they didn't label it that way, it’s essentially what it was. It doesn't matter what your background is, whether you come from a particular denomination of Christianity, Judaism, or Messianic Judaism, because this story belongs to all of us. It’s the story of our shared origins and how we journeyed from then to now.
References
This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.
The Jewish “Church” and an Overview of Acts
The first 11 chapters of the book of Acts describe a movement of Jesus-followers comprised entirely of Jews. Many Christians today do not realize that Gentiles did not follow Jesus in his lifetime. Non-Jews did not follow itinerate Rabbis and prophets traveling Judean countryside. The gospels record a very limited interaction of Jesus with Gentiles living in Israel. A mass of non-Jews came into the movement sometime between 40s and 50s, decades after Yeshua's resurrection.
Here is a reconstruction of how these events unfolded based on the book of Acts. The church was entirely Jewish until the persecution caused the believers to scatter. After Stephen's execution (Acts 6-8) many believing Jews left Jerusalem area.
This was around mid 30's CE. Acts 9 records Philip, John and Peter reaching out to the Samaritans. This was probably not long after those events in the 30s. In late 30's Shaul who was known for persecuting Jewish Christ-followers received his vision and calling in Damascus. After his brief time in Damascus Shaul spend some time processing what happened to him somewhere in Arabia.
Then Acts 10 and 11 describe Peter's witness to a Roman family in Caesarea around 40 CE. And this was just the very beginning of cultural diversity in a completely Jewish church. Then comes a pivotal passage upon which everything turns in the book of Acts:
"So then those who were scattered because of the persecution that occurred in connection with Stephen made their way to Phoenicia and Cyprus and Antioch, speaking the word to no one except to Jews alone. But there were some of them, men of Cyprus and Cyrene, who came to Antioch and began speaking to the Greeks also, preaching the Lord Jesus." (Acts 11:19-20)
Around this time, there was an equal population outside of Israel as compared to inside of Israel. There was a large Jewish population in Cyprus and Cyrene. Acts 11 and 13 describe non-Jews hearing the gospel in Antioch. This was a pivotal moment that occurred sometime into the 40s. The first ethnically mixed community of Jews and Gentiles was forming in Roman Antioch.
Barnabas, Paul and Peter all spent time teaching the Scriptures in Antioch. In Acts 14 we see that people in many Roman cities began to embrace the gospel, which must have occurred closer to late 40's. It is possible that the book of James was written around this time.
In the midst of this transformation, just as Jewish movement was turning into a global phenomenon, as more and more non-Jews were turning to the gospel, Emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome.
"And he (Paul) found a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, having recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to leave Rome." (Acts 18:2)
The Jews were most likely asked to leave Rome because of the uproar that was occurring regarding the gospel reaching the Gentiles. In the first century, Jews were actually acting as missionaries, promoting their god amongst the pagan gods. Sometimes they were successful in convincing Gentile pagans to follow Jewish ways. The Jews were expelled many times from Rome and eventually let back in. Each time an expulsion was recorded it was because they were successful in making some of the Romans believe their message.
In Acts 15 the Apostles decided how they should classify non-Jews who believe in Jesus. (God-fearers, Gerim, Proselytes?). There were always non-Jews who lived among the Jewish people (Gerim). Some were God-fearers and believed in the God of Israel. Proselytes were converts and became Israelites. In Acts 15, they are asking if the Gentiles should be treated as God-fearers, Gerim, or Proselytes. Ultimately, they decide to treat them as Gerim.
This was another pivotal point that occurred around 50 CE. Just a few years later, Jews would slowly become a minority in their own movement.
In the 50s Paul writes his letters to Galatians and Thessalonians. Paul travels a lot and eventually towards the endo of 50s he writes Corinthians and Romans. After this Paul is arrested and taken to Rome.
In the 60's Jews return to Rome and Peter writes his letters. Paul is released and travels to Greece and Spain. But shortly after that Peter is put to death in Rome.
The Jerusalem temple expansion begun by Herod in 20 BCE is finally complete in the 60s of CE, but Rome is set on fire by Nero. Paul writes letters to Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians, Jude and perhaps some others. This is where the book of Acts stops its story.
It is beloved that the Gospel of Mark was written in the 60's. And since the book of Acts stops at this point this is when the books of Luke and Acts are most likely completed.
The Gospel of Matthew probably follows shortly just after Luke. Matthew was probably completed in the late 60's in most turbulent times for Israel.
In 66 CE there is Jewish apprising against Rome. Galilee is conquered and thousands of Jews are killed and enslaved. Paul is executed by the order of Nero in those days. And the book of Hebrews surfaces probably sometime during this era as well.
In 69 CE as the city of Jerusalem is besieged Vespasian becomes a new Emperor. And in 70 CE his son Titus takes Jerusalem and obliterates the Temple complex. All the gold and silver from the Jerusalem Temple are brought to Rome. The money were used to finance the Coliseum which was completed a decade later.
Jewish believers were affected by the was just as everyone else. Many live outside of Israel by then. Apostle John's letters and possibly his gospel come in the 80s from Ephesus.
John is sent to Patmos. Revelation was most likely completed in the next decade, around the time of Emperor Domitian. And the last apostle returned from Patmos to Ephesus and died just before the turn of the century.
This very brief and somewhat incomplete account of the first century is very debatable. Many events and date ranges mentioned here are not set in stone. Much of this information comes from Acts, various traditions and sources that cannot be verified. But still the overall flow is accurate.
The book of Acts records events from the 30s to the 60s, just up to Jewish war with Rome and Jerusalem Temple destruction.
References
This lesson was adapted from teachings in Stories of the Jewish Church: Acts 1-5, as presented on the Israel Bible Center website.
Signs and Omens: The Events Leading to the Destruction of the Temple
Forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, a series of strange omens and signs began to manifest in the holy Temple. On the eve of Passover, darkness fell at noon, shrouding the city in an unexpected eclipse. A few hours later, just as the Passover sacrifices were taking place, the darkness suddenly lifted, and at that same moment, the ground shook violently. A massive lintel stone above one of the Temple gateways cracked and collapsed. A brief wave of panic spread through the Temple courts, but it quickly subsided as the tremors ceased, allowing the Passover sacrifices to continue uninterrupted.
Later that evening, the priests made a startling discovery: the great curtain that separated the holy place from the Holy of Holies had been torn in two, right down the middle. Despite its thickness—nearly a handbreadth—the heavy fabric was split as if it were no more than a delicate sheet of linen. The chief priests ordered the curtain to be replaced, attempting to keep the incident quiet, but many who witnessed it were deeply troubled, sensing it was a sign of some greater event.
Around this same time, another strange occurrence began. The westernmost lamp of the menorah, the one closest to the Holy of Holies, mysteriously failed to stay lit overnight, hinting at an ominous darkness. Additional signs persisted for forty years before the Temple's destruction: the Yom Kippur lot for the LORD never appeared in the high priest's right hand, the crimson strip did not turn white, the western lamp refused to remain lit, and the Temple doors repeatedly swung open by themselves (b. Yoma 39b, 67a; cf. Josephus, Jewish War 6:289-300/V.3).
All these signs began in the same year that the high priests, Chananiah ben Seth (Annas) and Yosef Kayafa (Caiaphas), plotted the death of Yeshua of Nazareth. Concerned about His growing influence, they convinced the Romans to crucify Him on the eve of Passover. However, their plan backfired. The day after Passover, Yeshua’s body vanished, and His disciples spread the claim that He had risen from the dead. Many witnesses reported seeing Him alive, and the “resurrected” Yeshua gained even greater renown among the people than He had during His lifetime.
References
This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.